THE  ARTISTIC  CRAFTS 
SERIES  OF  TECHNICAL 
HANDBOOKS 

WRITING  ^ILLUMINATING 
&  LETTERING 


University  of  California  •  Berkeley 
Purchased  from 

THE  NORMAN  H.  STROUSE  FUND 
for  the  Art  &  History  of  the  Book 


^^^ 

THE  ARTISTIC  CRAFTS  SERIES 

OF  TECHNICAL  HANDBOOKS 

EDITED  BY  W.  R.  LETHABY 

WRITING  &   ILLUMINATING, 
AND   LETTERING 


iHP  -l«fe 


Frontispiece. 


A    SCRIPTORIUM 


This  drawing  (about  tivo-Jifths  of  the  linear  size 
of  the  original^  is  made  from  a  photograph  of  a 
miniature  painted  in  an  old  MS.  (written  in  1456 
at  the  Hague  by  Jean  Mielot,  Secretary  to  Philip 
the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy},  now  in  the  Paris 
National  Library  (MS.  Fonds  frangais  9,198). 

//  depicts  Jean  Mielot  himself,  'writing  his  col- 
lection of  Miracles  of  Our  Lady  in  French.  His 
parchment  appears  to  be  held  steady  by  a  'weight  and 
also  by  (?  the  knife  or  Jiller  in)  his  left  hand — com- 
pare fig.  4 1  in  this  book.  Above  there  is  a  sort  of 
reading  desk,  holding  MSS.  for  copying  or  reference. 


WRITING  &  ILLUMIN- 
ATING,&  LETTERING 

BY  EDWARD  JOHNSTON.  WITH 
DIAGRAMS  &  ILLUSTRATIONS 
BYTHEAUTHOR&NOELROOKE 
8  pp.  EXAMPLES  IN  RED  &  BLACK 
AND  24pp.  OF  COLLOTYPES 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 

JOHN    HOGG 

LONDON 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE 

IN  issuing  these  volumes  of  a  series  of  Handbooks  Editor's 
on  the  Artistic  Crafts,  it  will  be  well  to  state  what  Preface 
are  our  general  aims. 

In  the  first  place,  we  wish  to  provide  trustworthy 
text-books  of  workshop  practice,  from  the  points  of 
view  of  experts  who  have  critically  examined  the 
methods  current  in  the  shops,  and  putting  aside 
vain  survivals,  are  prepared  to  say  what  is  good 
workmanship,  and  to  set  up  a  standard  of  quality 
in  the  crafts  which  are  more  especially  associated 
with  design.  Secondly,  in  doing  this,  we  hope  to 
treat  design  itself  as  an  essential  part  of  good  work- 
manship. During  the  last  century  most  of  the  arts, 
save  painting  and  sculpture  of  an  academic  kind, 
were  little  considered,  and  there  was  a  tendency  to 
look  on  "  design  "  as  a  mere  matter  of  appearance. 
Such  "  ornamentation "  as  there  was  was  usually 
obtained  by  following  in  a  mechanical  way  a  draw- 
ing provided  by  an  artist  who  often  knew  little 
of  the  technical  processes  involved  in  production. 
With  the  critical  attention  given  to  the  crafts  by 
vii 


Editor's  Ruskin  and  Morris,  it  came  to  be  seen  that  it  was 
Preface  impossible  to  detach  design  from  craft  in  this  way, 
and  that,  in  the  widest  sense,  true  design  is  an 
inseparable  element  of  good  quality,  involving  as  it 
does  the  selection  of  good  and  suitable  material, 
contrivance  for  special  purpose,  expert  workman- 
ship, proper  finish,  and  so  on,  far  more  than  mere 
ornament,  and  indeed,  that  ornamentation  itself  was 
rather  an  exuberance  of  fine  workmanship  than  a 
matter  of  merely  abstract  lines.  Workmanship 
when  separated  by  too  wide  a  gulf  from  fresh 
thought — that  is,  from  design — inevitably  decays, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  ornamentation,  divorced 
from  workmanship,  is  necessarily  unreal,  and  quickly 
falls  into  affectation.  Proper  ornamention  may  be 
defined  as  a  language  addressed  to  the  eye  ;  it  is 
pleasant  thought  expressed  in  the  speech  of  the  tool. 
In  the  third  place,  we  would  have  this  series  put 
artistic  craftsmanship  before  people  as  furnishing 
reasonable  occupations  for  those  who  would  gain  a 
livelihood.  Although  within  the  bounds  of  academic 
art,  the  competition,  of  its  kind,  is  so  acute  that 
only  a  very  few  per  cent,  can  fairly  hope  to  suc- 
ceed as  painters  and  sculptors ;  yet,  as  artistic 
craftsmen,  there  is  every  probability  that  nearly 
every  one  who  would  pass  through  a  sufficient 
period  of  apprenticeship  to  workmanship  and  design 
would  reach  a  measure  of  success. 

In   the   blending  of  handwork  and  thought  in 
viii 


such  arts  as  we  propose  to  deal  with,  happy  careers       Editor's 
may   be   found  as    far    removed    from    the   dreary        Preface 
routine  of  hack  labour  as  from  the  terrible  uncer- 
tainty of  academic  art.    It  is  desirable  in  every  way 
that  men  of  good  education  should  be  brought  back 
into   the   productive   crafts  :   there  are  more   than 
enough  of  us  "  in  the  city,"  and  it  is  probable  that 
more  consideration  will   be   given  in  this  century 
than  in  the  last  to  Design  and  Workmanship. 

Of  all  the  Arts,  writing,  perhaps,  shows  most 
clearly  the  formative  force  of  the  instruments 
used.  In  the  analysis  which  Mr.  Johnston  gives  us 
in  this  volume,  nearly  all  seems  to  be  explained  by 
the  two  factors,  utility  and  masterly  use  of  tools. 
No  one  has  ever  invented  a  form  of  script,  and 
herein  lies  the  wonderful  interest  of  the  subject ; 
the  forms  used  have  always  formed  themselves  by 
a  continuous  process  of  development. 

The  curious  assemblages  of  wedge-shaped  in- 
dentations which  make  up  Assyrian  writing  are  a 
direct  outcome  of  the  clay  cake,  and  the  stylus 
used  to  imprint  little  marks  on  it.  The  forms  of 
Chinese  characters,  it  is  evident,  were  made  by 
quickly  representing  with  a  brush  earlier  pictorial 
signs.  The  Roman  characters,  which  are  our 
letters  to-day,  although  their  earlier  forms  have 
only  come  down  to  us  cut  in  stone,  must  have 
been  formed  by  incessant  practice  with  a  flat,  stiff 
ix 


Editor's  brush,  or  some  such  tool.  The  disposition  of  the 
Preface  thicks  and  thins,  and  the  exact  shape  of  the  curves, 
must  have  been  settled  by  an  instrument  used 
rapidly  ;  I  suppose,  indeed,  that  most  of  the  great 
monumental  inscriptions  were  designed  in  situ  by 
a  master  writer,  and  only  cut  in  by  the  mason, 
the  cutting  being  merely  a  fixing,  as  it  were, 
of  the  writing,  and  the  cut  inscriptions  must 
always  have  been  intended  to  be  completed  by 
painting. 

The  "  Rustic  letters  "  found  in  stone  inscriptions 
of  the  fourth  century  are  still  more  obviously 
cursive,  and  in  the  Catacombs  some  painted 
inscriptions  of  this  kind  remain  which  perfectly 
show  that  they  were  rapidly  written.  The  ordi- 
nary "  lower  case "  type  with  which  this  page  is 
printed  is,  in  its  turn,  a  simplified  cursive  form 
of  the  Capital  letters.  The  Italic  is  a  still  more 
swiftly  written  hand,  and  comes  near  to  the 
standard  for  ordinary  handwriting. 

All  fine  monumental  inscriptions  and  types 
are  but  forms  of  writing  modified  according  to 
the  materials  to  which  they  are  applied.  The 
Italian  type-founders  of  the  fifteenth  century 
sought  out  fine  examples  of  old  writing  as  models, 
and  for  their  capitals  studied  the  monumental 
Roman  inscriptions.  Roman  letters  were  first 
introduced  into  English  inscriptions  by  Italian 
artists.  Torrigiano,  on  the  tombs  he  made  for 
x 


Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey  and  for  Dr. 
Young  at  the  Rolls  Chapel,  designed  probably 
the  most  beautiful  inscriptions  of  this  kind  to  be 
found  in  England. 

This  volume  is  remarkable  for  the  way  in  which 
its  subject  seems  to  be  developed  inevitably. 
There  is  here  no  collection  of  all  sorts  of  lettering, 
some  sensible  and  many  eccentric,  for  us  to 
choose  from,  but  we  are  shown  the  essentials  of 
form  and  spacing,  and  the  way  is  opened  out  to 
all  who  will  devote  practice  to  it  to  form  an 
individual  style  by  imperceptible  variations  from 
a  fine  standard. 

Writing  is  for  us  the  most  universal  of  the  Arts, 
and  most  craftsmen  have  to  deal  with  lettering  of 
a  more  formal  kind.  It  is  a  commonplace  of  his- 
torical criticism  to  point  out  how  much  the  Italian 
artists  owed  to  the  general  practice  amongst  them 
of  goldsmith's  work,  a  craft  which  required  accuracy 
and  delicacy  of  hand.  We  cannot  go  back  to  that, 
but  we  do  need  a  basis  of  training  in  a  demon- 
strably  useful  art,  and  I  doubt  if  any  is  so  generally 
fitted  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  hand,  the 
eye,  and  the  mind  as  this  one  of  WRITING. 

W.  R.  LETHABY. 

October   1906. 


XI 


"  We  must  set  up  the  strong  present  tense  against  all  the 
rumours  of  wrath,  past  or  to  come.  So  many  things  are 
unsettled  •which  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  settle, — and, 
pending  their  settlement,  ive  will  do  as  we  do.  .  .  .  Expe- 
diency of  literature,  reason  of  literature,  lawfulness  of  'writing 
down  a  thought,  is  questioned;  much  is  to  say  on  both  sides,  and, 
'while  the  fight  'waxes  hot,  thou,  dearest  scholar,  stick  to  thy 
foolish  task,  add  a  line  every  hour,  and  between  whiles  add  a 
line.  Right  to  hold  land,  right  of  property  is  disputed,  and 
the  conventions  convene,  and  before  the  vote  is  taken,  dig  away 
in  your  garden,  and  spend  your  earnings  as  a  waif  or  god- 
send to  all  serene  and  beautiful  purposes.  Life  itself  is  a 
bubble  and  a  scepticism,  and  a  sleep  •within  a  sleep.  Grant 
it,  and  as  much  more  as  they  will, — but  thou,  God's  darling/ 
heed  thy  private  dream  :  thou  •wilt  not  be  missed  in  the 
scorning  and  scepticism:  there  are  enough  of  them:  stay 
there  in  thy  closet,  and  toil,  until  the  rest  are  agreed  'what 
to  do  about  it.  Thy  sickness,  they  say,  and  thy  puny  habit, 
require  that  thou  do  this  or  avoid  that,  but  know  that  thy 
life  is  a  flitting  state,  a  tent  for  a  night,  and  do  thou,  sick  or 
•well,  finish  that  stint.  Thou  art  sick,  but  shalt  not  be 
worse,  and  the  universe,  which  holds  thee  dear,  shall  be  the 
better."  — EMERSON. 

"  /  began  to  think  that  if  I  should  discover  how  to  make 
enamels,  I  could  make  earthen  vessels  and  other  things  very 
prettily,  because  God  had  gifted  me  'with  some  know/edge  of 
drawing.  And  thereafter,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  I  had 
no  knowledge  of  drugs,  I  began  to  seek  for  the  enamels  as  a 
man  gropes  in  the  dark."  — PALISSY. 

" .  .  .  in  that  communion  only,  beholding  beauty  with 
the  eye  of  the  mind,  he  will  be  enabled  to  bring  forth,  not 
images  of  beauty,  but  realities  (for  he  has  hold  not  of  an 
image  but  of  a  reality},  and  bringing  forth  and  nourishing 
true  virtue  to  become  the  friend  of  God  and  be  immortal,  if 
mortal  man  may"  — PLATO. 

xii 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 


THE  arts  of  WRITING,  ILLUMINATING, 
&  LETTERING  offer  a  wide  field  for  the 
ingenious  and  careful  craftsman  and  open  the 
way  to  a  number  of  delightful  occupations.  Be- 
yond their  many  uses — some  of  which  are  referred 
to  below — they  have  a  very  great  educational  value. 
This  has  long  been  recognized  in  the  teaching  of 
elementary  design,  and  the  practice  of  designing 
Alphabets  and  Inscriptions  is  now  common  in 
most  Schools  of  Art.  Much  would  be  gained 
by  substituting,  generally,  WRITING  for  designing, 
because  writing  being  the  medium  by  which 
nearly  all  our  letters  have  been  evolved  from  the 
Roman  Capital  (see  p.  35),  the  use  of  the  pen — 
essentially  a  letter-making  tool — gives  a  practical 
insight  into  the  construction  of  letters  attainable 
in  no  other  way.  The  most  important  use  of 
letters  is  in  the  making  of  books,  and  the  founda- 
tions of  typography  and  book  decoration  may  be 
mastered — as  they  were  laid — by  the  planning, 
writing,  and  illuminating  of  MSS.  in  book  form. 
Of  this  a  modern  printer  (see  also  p.  368)  says  : 

"  In  the  making  of  the  Written  Book, the 

adjustment  of  letter  to  letter,  of  word  to  word,  of  picture 
to  text  and  of  text  to  picture,  and  of  the  whole  to  the 
subject  matter  and  to  the  page,  admits  of  great  nicety  and 
perfection.  The  type  is  fluid,  and  the  letters  and  words, 
picture,  text,  and  page  are  conceived  of  as  one  and  are  all 
executed  by  one  hand,  or  by  several  hands  all  working 
together  without  intermediation  on  one  identical  page  and 
xiii 


Author's 
Preface 


WRITING 


Author's       with  a  view  to  one  identical  effect.      In  the  Printed  Book 

Preface        tn^8  adjustment  is  more  difficult Yet  in  the 

making  of  the  printed  book,  as  in  the  making  of  the 
written  book,  this  adjustment  is  essential,  and  should 
be  specially  borne  in  mind,  and  Calligraphy  and  im- 
mediate decoration  by  hand  and  the  unity  which  should 
be  inseparably  associated  therewith  would  serve  as  an 
admirable  discipline  to  that  end." 

And  though  calligraphy  is  a  means  to  many  ends, 
a  fine  MS.  has  a  beauty  of  its  own  that — if  two 
arts  may  be  compared — surpasses  that  of  the  finest 
printing.  This  in  itself  would  justify  the  transcrib- 
ing and  preservation  of  much  good  literature  in  this 
beautiful  form  (besides  the  preparation  of  "  Illumi- 
nated Addresses,"  Service  Books,  Heraldic  and  other 
MSS.)  and  make  the  practice  of  formal  writing 
desirable.  And  furthermore  as  the  old-fashioned 
notion  that  a  legible  hand  is  a  mark  of  bad  breeding  dies 
out,  it  may  be  that  our  current  handwriting  will 
take  legibility  and  beauty  from  such  practice.  And 
even  the  strict  utilitarian  could  not  fail  to  value  the 
benefits  that  might  some  day  come  to  men,  if  children 
learnt  to  appreciate  beauty  of  form  in  their  letters 
and  in  their  writing  the  beauty  of  carefulness. 
ILLUMI-  Of  the  practice  of  ILLUMINATING  —  properly 
NATING  associated  with  writing  —  it  may  be  observed 
that,  among  various  ways  of  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  the  elements  of  design  &  decoration  it  is  one  of  the 
most  simple  and  complete.  Moreover,  a  fine 
illumination  or  miniature  has  a  beauty  of  its  own 
that  may  surpass  the  finest  printed  book-decoration. 
And  pictures  in  books  may  be  as  desirable  as  pic- 
tures on  the  wall — even  though  like  the  beautiful 
household  gods  of  the  Japanese  they  are  kept  in  safe 
hiding  and  displayed  only  now  and  then, 
xiv 


Magnificent  as  are  the  dreams  of  a  fine  Decora- 
tion based  on  lettering,  the  innumerable  practical 
applications  of  LETTERING  itself  (see  Chap.  XVI.) 
make  the  study  of  Letter-Craft  not  only  desirable 
but  imperative.  And  perhaps  I  may  here  be  per- 
mitted to  quote  from  The  Athenaum  of  Feb.  3, 
1906,  which  says  of  "the  new  school  of  scribes 
and  designers  of  inscriptions  " 

"  These  have  attacked  the  problem  of  applied  de- 
sign in  one  of  its  simplest  and  most  universal  applications, 
and  they  have  already  done  a  great  deal  to  establish  a 
standard  by  which  we  shall  be  bound  to  revise  all  printed 
and  written  lettering.  If  once  the  principles  they  have 
established  could  gain  currency,  what  a  load  of  ugliness 
would  be  lifted  from  modern  civilization  !  If  once  the 
names  of  streets  and  houses,  and,  let  us  hope,  even  the 
announcements  of  advertisers,  were  executed  in  beautifully 
designed  and  well-spaced  letters,  the  eye  would  become 
so  accustomed  to  good  proportion  in  these  simple  and 
obvious  things  that  it  would  insist  on  a  similar  gratifica- 
tion in  more  complex  and  difficult  matters." 

Yet  Ordinary  Writing  and  even  scribbling  has 
had,  and  still  might  have,  a  good  influence  on  the 
art  of  the  Letter  maker,  and  at  least  the  common 
use  of  pen,  ink,  &  paper  makes  it  a  simple  matter 
for  any  one  to  essay  a  formal  or  '  book '  hand. 
A  broad  nib  cut  to  give  clean  thick  and  thin 
strokes  (without  appreciable  variation  of  pressure) 
will  teach  any  one  who  cares  to  learn,  very  clearly 
and  certainly.  And  though  much  practice  goes  to 
the  making  of  a  perfect  MS.,  it  is  easier  than  people 
suppose  to  make  really  beautiful  things  by  taking  a 
little  pains.  As  "  copy  book  "  hands  simple,  primi- 
tive pen-forms — such  as  the  Uncial  &  Half-Uncial 
(pp.  38,  70) — afford  the  best  training  and  permit 
xv 


Author's 
Preface 

LETTER- 
ING 


Author's  the  cultivation  of  the  freedom  which  is  essential 
Preface  in  writing  :  they  prepare  the  way  for  the  mastery 
of  the  most  practical  characters — the  ROMAN 
CAPITAL,  roman  small-letter,  &  Italic— and 
the  ultimate  development  of  a  lively  and  personal 
penmanship. 

MODERN          Developing,  or  rather  redeveloping,  an  art  in- 

DEVELOP-     volves  the  tracing  in  one's  own  experience  of  a  process 

ME  NT  OF      resembling  its  past  development.     And  it  is  by  such 

WRITING     a   course  that  we,  who   wish    to    revive  Writing 

&  &    Illuminating,  may  renew    them,  evolving    new 

ILLUMI-       methods  and  traditions  for  ourselves,  till  at  length 

NATING       we  attain  a  modern  and  beautiful  technique.     And 

if  we    would    be    more    than    amateurs,  we   must 

study  and  practise  the  making  of  beautiful  THINGS 

and  thereby  gain  experience  of  Tools,  Materials, 

and    Methods.     For    it  is  certain    that    we   must 

teach     ourselves    how    to    make    beautiful    things, 

and  must  have  some  notion  of  the  aim  and  bent 

of  our  work,  of  what  we  seek  and  what  we  do. 

Early  illuminated  MSS.  and  printed  books  with 
woodcuts  (or  good  facsimiles)  may  be  studied  with 
advantage  by  the  would-be  Illuminator,  and  he 
should  if  possible  learn  to  draw  from  hedgerows 
and  from  country  gardens.  In  his  practice  he 
should  begin  as  a  scribe  making  MS.  books  and 
then  decorating  them  with  simple  pen  &  colour 
work.  We  may  pass  most  naturally  from  writing 
to  the  decoration  of  writing,  by  the  making  and 
placing  of  initial  letters.  For  in  seeking  first  a  fine 
effectiveness  we  may  put  readableness  before  "  looks  " 
and,  generally,  make  a  text  to  read  smoothly,  broken 
only  by  its  natural  division  into  paragraphs,  chap- 
ters, and  the  like.  But  these  divisions,  suggesting 
that  a  pause  in  reading  is  desirable,  suggest  also  that 
xvi 


a   mark   is  required — as   in  music — indicating  the       Author's 
"  rest "  :  this  a  large  capital  does  most  effectively.  Preface 

A  technical  division  of  illumination  into  Colour- 
work^  Pen  -  worky  and  Draughtsmanship  is  con- 
venient (see  Chap.  XL).  Though  these  are 
properly  combined  in  practice,  it  is  suggested 
that,  at  first,  it  will  be  helpful  to  think  of  their 
effects  as  distinct  so  that  we  may  attain  quite 
definitely  some  mastery  of  pure,  bright,  colours 
&  simple  colour  effects,  of  pen  flourishing  and 
ornament,  and  of  drawing  —  whether  plain  or 
coloured,  that  will  go  decoratively  with  writing 
or  printing.  This  distinction  makes  it  easier  to 
devise  definite  schemes  of  illumination  that  will 
be  within  our  power  to  carry  out  at  any  stage 
of  our  development.  And  while  the  penman 
inevitably  gains  some  power  of  pen  decoration  it 
is  well  for  him  as  an  illuminator  to  practise  in 
bright  colours  and  gold  ;  for  illumination  may  be 
as  brilliant  and  splendid  in  its  own  way  as  stained 
glass,  enamels,  and  jewellery  are  in  theirs.1  At 
first,  at  any  rate,  hues  that  have  the  least  suspicion 
of  being  dull  or  weak  are  to  be  avoided  as  though 
they  were  plainly  "  muddy "  or  "  washed-out." 
The  more  definite  we  make  our  work  the  more 
definitely  will  our  materials  instruct  us ;  and  such 
service  must  precede  mastery. 

Referring  again  to  good  LETTERING  :  the  MODERN 
second  part  of  this  book  deals  with  some  of  its  DEVELOP- 
Qua/ities,  Forms — the  Roman  Capitals  &  their  im-  MENT  OF 
portant  pen-derivatives — and  Uses.  It  is  written  LETTERING 

1  See  Chap.  XVI.  «  Of  Colour  "  in  "  Stained  Glass  Work  " 
by  C.  W.  Whall,  in  this  Series,  and  the  illuminator  might 
profit  by  the  suggestion  (ibid.,  p.  232)  of  playing  with  a  home- 
made kaleidoscope. 

xvii  B 


Author's  largely  from  the  penman's  point  of  view,1  but  a 
Preface  chapter  on  inscriptions  in  stone  has  been  added  and 
various  types  and  modes  of  letter  making  are  dis- 
cussed. The  essential  qualities  of  Lettering  are 
legibility,  beauty,  and  character,  and  these  are  to  be 
found  in  numberless  inscriptions  and  writings  of 
the  last  two  thousand  years.  But  since  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  early  scribes  and  printers  and  carvers 
have  decayed,  we  have  become  so  used  to  inferior 
forms  and  arrangements  that  we  hardly  realize 
how  poor  the  bulk  of  modern  lettering  really  is. 
In  the  recent  "  revival "  of  printing  and  book 
decoration,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
design  fine  alphabets  and  beautiful  books — in  a 
number  of  cases  with  notable  success.  But  the 
study  of  Palaeography  and  Typography  has  hitherto 
been  confined  to  a  few  specialists,  and  these  at- 
tempts to  make  "  decorative  "  books  often  shew  a 
vagueness  of  intention,  which  weakens  their  in- 
terest and  an  ignorance  of  Letter-craft  which  makes 
the  poorest,  ordinary  printing  seem  pleasant  by 
comparison.  The  development  of  Letters  was  a 
purely  natural  process  in  the  course  of  which  dis- 
tinct and  characteristic  types  were  evolved  and 
some  knowledge  of  how  these  came  into  being  will 
help  us  in  understanding  their  anatomy  and  dis- 
tinguishing good  and  bad  forms.  A  comparatively 
little  study  of  old  manuscripts  and  inscriptions  will 
make  clear  much  of  the  beauty  and  method  of  the 
early  work.  And  we  may  accustom  ourselves  to 
good  lettering  by  carefully  studying  such  examples 
as  we  can  find,  and  acquire  a  practical  knowledge 

1  Dealing  with  the  practical  and  theoretical  knowledge  of 
letter-making  and  arrangement  which  may  be  gained  most 
effectually  by  the  use  of  the  pen. 

xviii 


of  it  by  copying  from  them  with  a  pen  or  chisel  or      Author's 

other  letter-making  tool.     A  conscientious  endea-       Preface 

vour  to  make  our  lettering  readable,  and  models1 

and  methods  chosen  to  that    end,   will  keep  our 

work  straight  :  and  after  all  the  problem  before  us 

is  fairly  simple — To  make  good  letters  and  to  arrange 

them  well.     To  make  good  letters  is  not  necessarily 

to  "  design  "  them — they  have  been  designed  long 

ago — but  it  is  to  take  the  best  letters  we  can  find, 

and  to  acquire  them  and  make  them  our  own.     To 

arrange  letters  well  requires  no    great  art,  but   it 

requires  a  practical  knowledge  of  letter-forms  and 

of  the  rational  methods  of  grouping  these  forms  to 

suit  every  circumstance. 

Generally  this  book  has  been  planned  as  a  sort  of    THE  SCOPE 
"  guide  "  to  models  and  methods  for  Letter-crafts-      OF  THIS 
men  and  Students — more  particularly  for  those  who    HANDBOOK 
cannot  see  the  actual  processes  of  Writing,  Illumi- 
nating, &c.   carried  out,  and  who  may  not   have 
access  to  collections  of  MSS.     Much  of,  if  not  all, 
the  explanation  is  of  the  most  obvious,  but  that, 
I  hope,  gives  it  more  nearly  the  value  of  a  practical 
demonstration.      In   describing    methods  and   pro- 
cesses I  have   generally  used  the   present    tense — 
saying  that  they  "  are — "  :  this  is  to  be  taken  as 
meaning  that  they  are  so  in  early  MSS.  and   in- 
scriptions, and  in  the  practice  of  the  modern  school 
of  scribes  who  found  their  work  on  them. 

Regarding  the   copying  of  early  work  (see  pp. 
195,  323,  &c.)  it  is  contended  that  to  revive  an  art 

1  In  making  choice  of  a  model  we  seek  an  essentially  legible 
character,  remembering  that  our  personal  view  of  legibility 
is  apt  to  favour  custom  and  use  unduly,  for  a  quite  bad, 
familiar  writing  may  seem  to  us  more  readable  than  one  that 
is  far  clearer  in  itself  but  unfamiliar. 
xix 


Author's  one  must  begin  at  the  beginning,  and  that,  in  an 
Preface  honest  attempt  to  achieve  a  simple  end,  one  may 
lawfully  follow  a  method  1  without  imitating  a  style. 
We  have  an  excellent  precedent  in  the  Italian 
scribes  who  went  back  300  years  for  a  model  and 
gave  us  the  Roman  small-letter  as  a  result  (see  p. 
47).  The  beginners  attitude  is  largely,  and  neces- 
sarily, imitative,  and  at  this  time  we  should  have 
much  to  hope  from  a  school  of  Artist-Beginners 
who  would  make  good  construction  the  only 
novelty  in  their  work.  We  have  almost  as  much 
— or  as  little — to  be  afraid  of  in  Originality  as  in 
imitation,  and  our  best  attitude  towards  this  pro- 
blem is  that  of  the  Irishman  with  a  difficulty — "  to 
look  it  boldly  in  the  face  and  pass  on  " — making  an 
honest  attempt  to  achieve  a  simple  end.  Perhaps  we 
trouble  too  much  about  what  we  "  ought  to  do  "  & 
"  do  "  :  it  is  of  greater  moment  to  know  what  we 
are  doing  &  trying  to  do.  In  so  far  as  tradition  fails 
to  bound  or  guide  us  we  must  think  for  ourselves 
and  in  practice  make  methods  and  rules  for  our- 
selves :  endeavouring  that  our  work  should  be  effec- 
tive rather  than  have  "a  fine  effect  " — or  he,  rather 
than  appear,  good — and  following  our  craft  rather 
than  making  it  follow  us.  For  all  things — mate- 
rials, tools,  methods — are  waiting  to  serve  us  and 

1  Much  remains  to  be  found  out  and  done  in  the  matter  of 
improving  tools  &  materials  &  processes,  and  it  would  be 
preferable  that  the  rediscovery  of  simple,  old  methods  should 
precede  new  &  complex  inventions.  We  still  find  the  Quill — 
for  its  substance  &  for  shaping  it  and  keeping  it  sharp — is  a 
better  tool  than  a  modern  gold  or  metal  pen  (see  p.  60).  The 
old  parchment,  paper,  ink,  gilding-size  &  colours  are  all  much 
better  than  those  now  obtainable  (see  pp.  51,  167,  173,  178- 
179).  I  should  greatly  appreciate  any  advice  from  illuminators 
and  letter-craftsmen  as  to  materials  and  methods,  and  should 
endeavour  to  make  such  information  available  to  others.  — £.  J. 
XX 


we  have  only  to  find  the  "  spell  "  that  will  set  the      Author's 
whole  universe  a-making  for  us.  Preface 

Endeavouring  to  attain  this  freedom  we  may 
make  Rules  and  Methods  serve  us  (see  p.  22 1), 
knowing  that  Rules  are  only  Guides  and  that 
Methods  are  suggested  by  the  work  itself:  from 
first  to  last  our  necessary  equipment  consists  in 
good  models,  good  tools,  &  a  good  will.  Within 
the  limits  of  our  craft  we  cannot  have  too  much 
freedom  ;  for  too  much  fitting  &  planning  makes 
the  work  lifeless,  and  it  is  conceivable  that  in  the 
finest  work  the  Rules  are  concealed,  and  that,  for 
example,  a  MS.  might  be  most  beautiful  without 
ruled  lines  and  methodical  arrangement  (see  p. 
343).  But  the  more  clearly  we  realize  our  limita- 
tions the  more  practical  our  work.  And  it  is 
rather  as  a  stimulus  to  definite  thought — not  as  an 
embodiment  of  hard  and  fast  rules — that  various 
methodical  plans  &  tables  of  comparison  &  analysis 
are  given  in  this  book.  It  is  well  to  recognize  at 
once,  the  fact  that  mere  taking  to  pieces,  or  analys- 
ing, followed  by  "  putting  together,"  is  only  a 
means  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  mechan- 
ism of  construction,  and  will  not  reproduce  the 
original  beauty  of  a  thing  :  it  is  an  education  for 
work,  but  all  work  which  is  honest  and  straight- 
forward has  a  beauty  and  freshness  of  its  own. 

The  commercial  prospects  of  the  student  of 
Writing  &  Illuminating — or,  indeed,  of  any  Art 
or  Craft — are  somewhat  problematical,  depending 
largely  on  his  efficiency  &  opportunities.  There  is  a 
fairly  steady  demand  for  Illuminated  Addresses  ;  but 
the  independent  craftsman  would  have  to  establish 
himself  by  useful  practice,  and  by  seizing  opportuni- 
ties, and  by  doing  his  work  well.  Only  an  attempt 
xxi 


Author'g  to  do  practical  work  will  raise  practical  problems, 
Preface  and  therefore  useful  practice  is  the  making  of  real  or 
definite  things.  In  the  special  conditions  attaching 
to  work  which  the  craftsman  is  commissioned  to 
do  for  another  person,  there  is  a  great  advantage. 
And  the  beginner  by  setting  himself  specific  tasks 
(for  example  :  making  a  MS.  book  for  a  specific  pur- 
pose— see  p.  100)  should  give  reality  to  his  work. 
As  a  craftsman  in  Lettering  he  might  get  work  in 
some  of  the  directions  mentioned  in  pp.  337-341. 

Although  the  demand  for  good  work  is  at  present 
limited,  the  production  of  good  work  will  inevit- 
ably create  a  demand  ;  and,  finally,  the  value  of 
Quality  is  always  recognized — sooner  or  later,  but 
inevitably — and  whatever  "practical"  reasons  we 
may  hear  urged  in  favour  of  Quantity,  the  value  of 
Quality  is  gaining  recognition  every  day  in  com- 
merce and  even  in  art,  and  there  or  here,  sooner 
or  later  we  shall  know  that  we  can  afford  the  best. 

EDWARD  JOHNSTON. 

October  1906. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  T.  J.  Cobden-Sanderson,  to  Mr. 
Emery  Walker,  and  to  Mr.  George  Allen  for  quotations :  to 
Mr.  Graily  Hewitt,  to  Mr.  Douglas  Cockerell,  to  Mr.  A.  E.  R. 
Gill,  to  Mr.  C.  M.  Firth,  and  to  Mr.  G.  Loumyer,  for  special 
contributions  on  gilding,  binding,  and  inscription-cutting  :  to 
Mr.  S.  C.  Cockerell  for  several  of  the  plates :  to  Mr.  W.  H. 
Cowlishaw,  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  T.  K.  Abbott,  to  Dr.  F.  S.  Kenyon 
of  the  New  Palajographical  Society,  to  the  Vicar  of  Holy 
Trinity  Church,  Hastings,  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  S.  Kensington,  to  Mr.  H.  Yates-Thompson,  to 
Mr.  G.  H.  Powell,  and  to  others,  for  permission  to  reproduce 
photographs,  &c. :  and  to  Mr.  Noel  Rooke  and  G.  J.  H.  for 
assistance  with  the  illustrations  and  many  other  matters :  I 
should  like,  moreover,  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  Mr. 
W.  R.  Lethaby  and  Mr.  S.  C.  Cockerell  for  encouragement  and 
advice  in  years  past.  E.  J. 

xxii 


ADDENDA   &   CORRIGENDA 

P.  51.  Beginners    practising    large    writing     may    Addenda  & 
more  easily  use  a  thin,  or  diluted,  ink  ;  in     Corrigenda 
small  writing  this  does  not  show  up  the 
faults  with  sufficient  clearness. 

P.  59.  Quills  often  have  a  sort  of  skin  (which  tends 
to  make  a  ragged  nib),  this  should  be 
scraped  off  the  back. 

P.  63.  Until  the  simple  pen-stroke  forms  are 
mastered,  the  pen  should  be  used  with- 
out appreciable  pressure.  With  practice 
one  gains  sleight  of  hand  (pp.  85,  311), 
and  slightly  changing  pressures  &  quick 
movements  on  to  the  corners,  or  points, 
of  the  nib  are  used.  The  forms  in  the 
best  MSS.  shew  such  variations ;  e.g.  the 
Uncials  in  fig.  5  appear  to  have  been 
made  with  varying  pressure  (perhaps 
with  a  soft  reed)  &  their  fine  finishing- 
strokes  with  the  nib-point  (comp.  forms 
in  fig.  146).  Versah  likewise  shew  vary- 
ing, and  sometimes  uncertain,  structures 
that  suggest  a  form  consisting  of  strokes 
other  than  definite  pen  strokes. 
xxiii 


I1  IGS.  a  to  «,  illustrating  Addenda  &  Corrigenda. 


P.  64.  A  nib  may  be  sharpened  several  times,  before    Addenda  & 
it  is  re-cut,  by  paring  it  underneath  (fig.  a).     Corrigenda 

Pp.  73  &  8 1.  The   thin    finishing-strokes  of  j,   &  >. 

F,  G,  J,  N,  are  made  with  the  point  of 
the  nib — see  note  p.  63  above. 

P.  99.  The  plan  of  a  paper  scale  is  shewn  in  fig.  b. 

P.  109.  The  dots  for  lines  were  often  pricked 
through  the  edges  of  the  book-sheets 
which  were  cut  off  after  ruling  (fig.  c). 

P.  1 1 8.  The  spread  or  wedge-shaped  thin  stroke, 
sometimes  very  strongly  marked,  is 
common  in  early  forms  (fig.  d). 

P.  144.  "ff  &  1$  :  better  (pen)  forms  of  these  are 
shewn  in  fig.  e. 

P.  208.  Ornamental  Letter  forms  may  consist  of 
flourishes,  patterns,  leaves,  flowers,  &c. 
(see  fig./). 

Pp.  215-217.  Diapering  generally  means  the 
variegation,  figuring,  or  flowering,  of  a 
plain  or  patterned  surface,  with  a  finer 
pattern  (see  fig.  191^).  Some  diagrams 
of  simple  patterns  (g-g2  from  modern 
cantagalli  ware)  are  shewn  in  fig.  g. 
Note  :  the  more  solid  penwork  line- 
fillings  in  figs.  87,  126,  make  effective 
framing  borders  (see  fig.  h). 

Pp.  219-220.  Note :  the  principle  of  breaking 
straight  or  long  lines,  mentioned  in 
regard  to  background  edges  (p.  190), 
and  illustrated  in  the  line-finishings  (fig. 
126)  and  flourishes  (fig.  79),  is  related 
to  branching  out  and  is  re-creative, 
whereas  the  prolonged  line  is  tiresome 
(see  figs.  £,  k\  &  comp.  P). 

P.  249.  The  B  &  D  should  be  round-shouldered — 
see  note  p.  280  below. 

XXV 


Addenda  &    P.  260.  It  is  sometimes  better  to  make  narrow  forms 
Corrigenda  thantocombinewideones — examplefig./. 

I  The  large  types  —  "  Old  Face" 
(founded  on  Caslon  Type)  and 
"Old  French"  (modern)  respectively 
— are  used  in  these  pages  as  refer- 
ence or  index  letters  (not  as  models). 

P.  280.  Generally  round-shouldered  letters  have 
finer  and  more  stable  forms  than  square- 
shouldered,  and  generally  emphasis 
should  be  laid  on  the  strong^  thick  stroke 
running  obliquely  down  from  left  to  right 
(\),  while  the  weak,  thin  stroke  (/)  is 
rather  to  be  avoided  (see  fig.  m).  The 
writing  used  in  the  diagrams  in  this 
book,  considered  as  a  formal  hand, 
shews  a  little  too  much  of  the  thin 
stroke  (see  p.  485). 

P.  324.  Commonly  letters  are  made  more  slender  in 
proportion  as  they  are  made  larger,  and 
it  is  generally  not  desirable  (or  possible) 
in  practical  work  to  have  exactly  similar 
proportions  in  large  and  small  lettering. 

P.  325.  g  from  fig.  173  inaccurate — comp.  fig.  173 
&  see  fig.  n. 

P.  331.  Ornamental  letters — see  note  p.  208  above. 

P.  481.  A  small  writing  is  often  the  most  practical 
— in  the  matter  of  speed  in  reading  and 
less  bulk  in  the  MS.,  besides  speed  in 
the  writing  of  it — but  it  is  more  difficult 
for  the  beginner  to  write  it  well  and  it 
is  apt  to  lose  some  of  the  virtues  of 
formal  penmanship  (see  Fine-pen  writing 

PP-  59>  86>  3IJ>  324>  482). 
P.  485.  Oblique  thin  stroke — see  note  p.  280  above. 


xxvi 


CONTENTS 


PAGE       Contents 

EDITOR'S  PREFACE  »  .  •  ;••  •  •  »  •  vii 
AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  . •  ^  •  •  .  •  •  •  xiii 
ADDENDA  &  CORRIGENDA  .»%.».  xxiii 


PART    I 

WRITING  &   ILLUMINATING 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   WRITING     .  .  .  •         35 

CHAPTER  II 

ACQUIRING   A   FORMAL   HAND:    (l)   TOOLS 

Acquiring   a   Formal    Hand :  Tools,    &c. — The   Desk — 
Paper  &    Ink—Pens:     The  Reed:     The    Quill— Of 
Quills  generally — Pen-knife,  Cutting-slab,  &c.  .         .       48 
xxvii 


Contents  CHAPTER  III 

ACQUIRING   A    FORMAL   HAND  :    (2)    METHODS 


'AGK 


Position  of  the  Desk— The  Writing  Level — Use  of  the 

Pen— Holding  the  Pen— Filling  the  Pen,  &c.    .        .      61 


CHAPTER   IV 

ACQUIRING   A   FORMAL   HAND  :    (3)    MODELS 

Models— Notes  on  Construction  :  Script  I. — Coupling 
the  Letters— Spacing :  Letters,  Words,  &  Lines — 
Uncial  Capitals:  Script  II. — Numerals  &  Punctua- 
tion Marks— Of  Copying  MSS.  Generally  ...  70 


CHAPTER  V 

ACQUIRING  A   FORMAL   HAND:    (4)    PRACTICE 

Practice  —  Scripts  I.  &  II. — Arranging  &  Ruling  a 
Single  Sheet  —  Problem  I.  (a  Sheet  of  Prose)  — 
Problem  II.  (a  Sheet  of  Poetry)  —  Spacing  & 
Planning  Manuscript 85 


CHAPTER  VI 

MANUSCRIPT    BOOKS 

MS.    Books  :  Tools  &  Materials  —  Methods  &   Propor- 
tions —  The    Size    &    Shape    of   the    Book  —  The 
Widths  of  the  Margins — The  Size  of  the  Writing, 
&c.— Ruling— MS.  Books  :  General  Remarks  .         .       98 
xxviii 


CHAPTER  VII  Contents 

VERSAL   LETTERS   &   COLOURED   CAPITALS 

PAGE 

Development  of  Versals — General  Analysis  of  Versals — 
Notes  on  Construction  of  Versals— Spacing  &  Ar- 
rangement of  Versals  112 

CHAPTER    VIII 

BLACK  &   RED 

Rubricating — Initial  Pages  or  Title  Pages — Prefaces  & 
Notes  in  Colour — Pages  with  Coloured  Headings — 
Page  or  Column  Heading  &  Initial  —  Versals  in 
Column  or  Marginal  Bands  —  Stanzas  or  Verses 
marked  by  Versals  —  Music  with  Red  Staves  — 
Tail-Pieces,  Colophons,  &c. — Rubricating :  General 
Remarks 127 

CHAPTER  IX 

LAYING  &    BURNISHING  GOLD 

Tools  &  Materials — Laying  the  Ground— Laying  the 
Gold-Leaf — Burnishing  the  Gold — Remedying  Faults 
in  Gilding— Gold  Writing— Other  Methods  &  Re- 
cipes for  Gilding — Appendix  on  Gilding  (by  Graily 
Hewitt) 145 

CHAPTER  X 

THE    USE   OF   GOLD   &   COLOURS   IN    INITIAL 
LETTERS   &    SIMPLE    ILLUMINATION 

Tools  &  Materials  for  Simple  Illumination — Parchment, 
"Vellum,"  &  Pounce  —  Colours  —  Simple  Colour 
Effects — Matt  Gold  —  Burnished  Gold  —  Burnished 
Gold  Forms,  &  Outlines  —  Background  Capitals  — 
Applying  the  Background  —  Ornament  of  Back- 
grounds   172 

xxix 


Contents  CHAPTER  XI 

A   THEORY   OF    ILLUMINATION- 
PAGE 

Illumination — "  Barbaric,  or  Colour-Work,  Illumination" 
—  "  Filigree,  or  Pen- Work,  Illumination  "  — 
"Natural,  or  Limner's,  Illumination"  .  .  .  193 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ILLUMINATION 

The  Development   of  Illumination  —  Line-Finishings  — 

Initial  Letters — Borders  &  Backgrounds    .         .         .     204 

CHAPTER  XIII 
"DESIGN"  IN  ILLUMINATION 

"  Design  " — Elementary  Patterns  in  Decoration — Scale 
&  Scope  of  Decoration — Of  "Designing"  Manu- 
scripts, Generally  .  .  .  ....  214 


PART    II 

LETTERING 
CHAPTER   XIV 

GOOD  LETTERING — SOME   METHODS  OF  CON- 
STRUCTION   &   ARRANGEMENT 

Good  Models — The  Qualities  of  Good  Lettering— Sim- 
plicity— Distinctiveness — Proportion — Beauty  of  Form 
— Beauty  of  Uniformity — Right  Arrangement — Set- 
ting Out  &  Fitting  In — "  Massed  Writing"  &  "  Fine 
Writing  "—Even  Spacing — Theory  &  Practice  .         .     237 
xxx 


CHAPTER  XV  Contents 

THE   ROMAN    ALPHABET   &    ITS   DERIVATIVES 

PAGE 

The  Roman  Alphabet — Proportions  of  Letters  :  Widths — 
Upper  &  Lower  Parts — Essential  or  Structural  Forms 
—  Characterisation  of  Forms  —  Built-Up  Forms  — 
Simple- Written  Capitals — Uncials — Capitals  &  Small- 
Letters — Early,  Round,  Upright,  Formal  Hands — 
Slanted-Pen  Small-Letters — Roman  Small-Letters— 
— Italics — Semi-Formal  Hands — Of  Formal  Writing 
Generally  —  Decorative  Contrasts  —  Ornamental 
Letters  ....  ,  268 


APPENDIX    A 
CHAPTER  XVI 

SPECIAL   SUBJECTS 

Divers  Uses  of  Lettering — MS.  Books,  &c. — Binding 
MSS  (with  Note  by  Doiiglas  Cockerel!)— Broadsides, 
Wall  Inscriptions,  &c. — Illuminated  Addresses,  &c. — 
Monograms  &  Devices — Title  Pages — Lettering  for 
Reproduction  —  Printing  —  Inscriptions  on  Metal, 
Stone,  Wood,  &c.  —  Of  Inscriptions  Generally  — 

Bibliography,  &c 337 

xxxi 


Contents  APPENDIX    B 

CHAPTER  XVII 

INSCRIPTIONS   IN   STONE 

(By  A.  E.  R.  Gill) 

PAGE 

Treatment  &  Arrangement — The  Three  Alphabets— Size 
&  Spacing— The  Material — Setting  Out — Tools — 
A  Right  Use  of  the  Chisel  —  Incised  Letters  & 
Letters  in  Relief— The  Sections  of  Letters — Work- 
ing in  situ 389 

NOTES  ON  THE  COLLOTYPE  PLATES      .        .        .  407 

THE  COLLOTYPE  PLATES        431 

INDEX 489 


xxxu 


PART    I 
WRITING   &   ILLUMINATING 


*s 


ROMAN  CAPITALS 


III  ROMAN  CAPITALS 

;<>  I  -^  -pen  (&  &ru$A)|  tM-d*  JIK 

ft  I  r  ™    *  'L         -m    Ar 


yen 


rn 


ctlp 

rr 


unaoils 


|  Small      aothtc 
l^romans 


srnaU'italicf 


Ornamental 


V 


34  FIG.  i. 


PART    I 
WRITING   &   ILLUMINATING 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    WRITING 

NEARLY  every  type  of  letter  with  which  we  are 
familiar  is  derived  from  the  Roman  Capitals,  and  has 
come  to  us  through  the  medium,  or  been  modified 
by  the  influence,  of  the  pen.  And,  therefore, 
in  trying  to  revive  good  Lettering,  we  cannot 
do  better  than  make  a  practical  study  of  the 
best  pen-forms,  and  learn  at  the  same  time  to 
appreciate  the  forms  of  their  magnificent  arche- 
types as  preserved  in  the  monumental  Roman 
inscriptions. 

The  development  and  the  relations  of  the  prin- 
cipal types  of  letters  are  briefly  set  out  in  the 
accompanying  "family  tree" — fig.  I.  When  the 
student  has  learnt  to  cut  and  handle  a  pen,  he 
can  trace  this  development  practically  by  trying 
to  copy  a  few  words  from  each  example  given 
below. 

35 


The 

Develop- 
ment of 
Writing 


The  THE  ROMAN  ALPHABET.— The  Alpha- 
Develop-  bet,    as  we  know  it,  begins  with  the   ROMAN 
ment  of  CAPITALS  1  (see  fig.  2).    Their  fine  monumental 
Writing  forms  were  evolved   by  the   use   of  the    chisel — 


FIG.  2. 

probably  under  the  influence  of  writing — and  had 
reached  full  development  about  2000  years  ago  (see 
Plates  I.,  II.,  and  Chapter  XV.). 

FORMAL  WRITING— the  "book-hand"  or 
professional  writing  of  the  scribes — comes  of  the 
careful  writing  of  the  Roman  Capitals  (see  also 
footnote,  p.  38,  on  the  beginnings  of  fine  penman- 
ship). It  was  the — 

"literary  hand,  used  in  the  production  of  exactly 
written  MSS.,  and  therefore  a  hand  of  comparatively 
limited  use.  By  its  side,  and  of  course  of  far  more 
extensive  and  general  use,  was  the  cursive  hand  of  the 
time"2 

1  "The  alphabet  which  we  use  at  the  present  day  has  been 
traced  back,  in  all  its  essential  forms,  to  the  ancient  hieratic 
writing  of  Egypt  of  about  the  twenty-fifth  century  before 
Christ.  It  is  directly  derived  from  the  Roman  alphabet ;  the 
Roman,  from  a  local  form  of  the  Greek  ;  the  Greek,  from  the 
Phoenician ;  the  Phanician,  from  the  Egyptian  hieratic.  .  .  . 
We  may  without  exaggeration  .  .  .  carry  back  the  invention 
of  Egyptian  writing  to  six  or  seven  thousand  years  before 
Christ." — Sir  Ed-ward  Maunde  Thompson,  "  Greek  and  Latin  Palxo- 
graphy,"  pp.  1-2. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  196. 

36 


In  early  cursive  writing — the  running-hand  or 
ordinary  writing  of  the  people — 

"  The  Letters  are  nothing  more  than  the  old  Roman 
letters  written  with  speed,  and  thus  undergoing  certain 
modifications  in  their  forms,  which  eventually  developed 
into  the  minuscule  hand"  l  (See  fig.  3.) 


R? 

Caps. 

Cumve  Writirur 

I.  to  V    CtKt? 

MinuJ'- 
cu/<  * 

A 
E 

H 

fX     / 

9555 

H-  h  h  h  h 

aaa 
a 

e 

FIG.  3. 

Here  it  is  sufficient  to  trace  the  history  of  the 
formal  Latin  "  hands,"  but  the  continual,  modifying 
influence  exerted  on  them  by  the  ordinary  cursive 
writing  should  be  borne  in  mind.  Notable  results 
of  this  influence  are  seen  in  Half-  Uncials  and  Italics. 

SQUARE  CAPITALS  were  formal,  pen-made 
Roman  Capitals,  of  the  monumental  type  :  they 
were  used  (perhaps  from  the  second]  till  about  the 

i  "G.  &  L.  Palaeography,"  p.  204.  (Minuscules  =  "small 
letters."  Half-Uncials  are  sometimes  distinguished  as  "round  minus- 
cules"— p.  302.) 

37 


The 

Develop- 
ment of 
Writing 


The          end  of  the  fifth  century  for  important  books  (see 
Develop-      Plate  III.). 

ment  of  RUSTIC  CAPITALS  were  probably  a  variety 

Writing       of  the  "  Square  Capitals,"  and  were  in  use  till  about 

the  end  of  the  fifth  century  (fig.  4  ;  see  also  p.  297). 

5CA1AUAUJIOV150. 

DLJCVUVNIAUIAD 


AiNLUAVAGNAdV 

FIG.  4.  —  ^Eneid,  on  vellum,  third  or  fourth  century. 

ROMAN  UNCIALS  were  fully  developed  by 
the  fourth  century,  and  were  used  from  the  fifth 
till  the  eighth  century  for  the  finest  books  (fig.  5). 

Uncials  are  true  pen-forms  1  —  more  quickly 
written  than  the  "Square,"  and  clearer  than  the 
"  Rustic  "  Capitals  —  having  the  characteristic, 
simple  strokes  and  beautiful,  rounded  shapes  which 
flow  from  the  rightly  handled  reed  or  quill.  The 

i  It  is  possible  that  their  forms  were  influenced  by  the  use  of 
the  brush  in  painting  up  public  notices  and  the  like.  The 
introduction  of  the  use  of  vellum  —  a  perfect  writing  material  — 
in  the  making  of  books,  led  to  such  a  great  advance  in  the 
formality  and  finish  of  the  book-hands  (especially  of  the  Uncial 
character)  that,  practically,  it  may  be  said  to  mark  the  be- 
ginning of  penmanship  as  a  "  fine  "  art.  This  change  may  be 
assigned  to  any  time  between  the  first  and  the  third  centuries 
(palaeographical  dates  before  the  fifth  century  must  generally 
be  regarded  as  approximate). 

38 


The 

Develop- 
ment of 
Writing 


JUSTJTt 
JUSTVFJCA 

CUSTO 


FIG.  5.— Psalter,  fifth  century. 

39 


The          typical  Uncial  letters  are  the  round  D,  E,  H,  M,  U 
Develop-      (or  V),  and  A  and  Q  (see  p.  300). 
ment  of        '    ROMAN  HALF-UNCIALS—  or  Semi-Uncials 
Writing       —  (fig.  6)  were  mixed    Uncial  and  Cursive  forms 
adopted  by  the  scribes  for  ease  and  quickness  in 
writing.    Their  evolution  marks  the  formal  change 
from  Capitals  to  "  Small-Letters" 


quir  UIP  i 


cnxb  eiM^i  etc  u  Lifrrt 
p  ofu  eiMJ  i-rcr.  M  o  M  i 

FIG.  6.  —  S.  Augustine  :  probably  French  sixth  century. 

They  were  first  used  as  a  book-hand  for  the  less 
important  books  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century. 

IRISH  HALF-UNQIALS  were  founded  on 
the  Roman  Half-Uncials  (probably  brought  to  Ire- 
land by  Roman  missionaries  in  the  sixth  century). 
As  a  beautiful  writing,  they  attained  in  the  seventh 
century  a  degree  of  perfection  since  unrivalled  (see 
Plate  VI.). 

They  developed  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries 
into  a  "  pointed  "  writing,  which  became  the  Irish 
national  hand. 

ENGLISH  HALF-UNCIALS  (fig.  7)  were 
modelled  on  the  Irish  Half  -Uncials  in  the  seventh 
40 


century.     They  also  developed  in  the  eighth  and          The 
ninth  centuries  into  a  "  pointed  "  writing.  Develop- 

ment of 

lUdOSCOUOTOD  Writing 


FIG.  7. 


Durham  Book  "  :  Lindisfarne,  about  A.D.  700. 
(See  also  Plate  VII.) 


CAROLINE  (or  CARL07INGIAN)  WRIT- 
ING. —  While  English  and  Irish  writing  thus  came 
from  Roman  Half-Uncial,  the  Continental  hands 
were  much  influenced  by  the  rougher  Roman 
Cursive,  and  were,  till  near  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century,  comparatively  poor. 

"  The  period  of  Charlemagne  is  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  handwritings  of  Western  Europe.  With  the  revival 
of  learning  naturally  came  a  reform  of  the  writing  in  which 
the  works  of  literature  were  to  be  made  known.  A  decree 
of  the  year  789  called  for  the  revision  of  church  books; 
and  this  work  naturally  brought  with  it  a  great  activity  in 
the  writing  schools  of  the  chief  monastic  centres  of  France. 
And  in  none  was  there  greater  activity  than  at  Tours, 
where,  under  the  rule  of  Alcuin  of  York,  who  was  abbot 
of  St.  Martin's  from  796  to  804,  was  specially  developed 
the  exact  hand  which  has  received  the  name  of  the 
Caroline  Minuscule."  1 


"  Greek  and  Latin  Palseography,"  p.  233. 


41 


The 

Derclop- 
mcnt  of 
Writing 


**  J 

p  d 


IG.  8.— British  Museum  :  Harl.  MS.  2790. 
Caroline  MS.  first  halfofgtti  century. 
(See  also  fig.  171  &  p.  305.) 


The  influence  of  the  Caroline  hands  (see  fig.  8) 
presently  spread  throughout  Europe.  The  letters 
in  our  modern  copy-books  may  be  regarded  as  their 
direct,  though  degenerate,  descendants. 

SLANTED-PEN  or  TILTED  WRITING. 
— The  forms  of  the  letters  in  early  writing  indicate 
an  easily  held  pen — slanted  away  from  the  right 
shoulder.  The  slanted  pen  naturally  produced 
oblique  thick  strokes  and  thin  strokes,  and  the  letters 
were  "  tilted  "  (see  fig.  9). 

In  the  highly  finished  hands  —  used  from  the 
sixth  to  the  eighth  centuries — such  as  the  later 
Uncials  and  the  Roman,  Irish,  and  English  Half- 
Uncials,  the  pen  was  manipulated  or  cut  so  that 
the  thin  strokes  were  approximately  horizontal, 
and  the  thick  strokes  vertical  (fig.  10).  The 
earlier  and  easier  practice  came  into  fashion  again 
in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  and  the  round 
Irish  and  English  hands  became  "pointed"  as  a 
result  of  slanting  the  pen. 

The  alteration  in  widths  and  directions  of  pen 
strokes,  due  to  the  use  of  the  "  slanted  pen,"  had  these 
effects  on  the  half-uncial  forms  (see  fig.  n) : — 

1.  The   thin    strokes    taking   an    oblique    (upward) 
direction  (a)  (giving  a  sharp  angle  with  the  ver- 
ticals (d,  a))  led  to  angularity  and  narrower  forms 
(a1),    and   a   marked   contrast  between  thick   and 
thin  strokes — due  to  the  abrupt  change  from  one 
to  the  other  (#2). 

2.  The  thick  strokes  becoming  oblique  (b)  caused  a 
thickening  of  the  curves  below  on   the  left  (bl), 
and  above  on   the   right    (bz),  which    gave   heavy 
shoulders  and  feet. 

3.  The  horizontal  strokes  becoming  thicker  (c)  gave 
stronger  and  less  elegant  forms. 

43 


The 

Develop- 
ment of 
Writing 


The 

Develop- 
ment of 
Writing 


HVST1C 

UMOAl 


en 


planted 


otno-  o 

strokes  Stilted" 


O 


Utters. 


FIG.  9. 


romaM 


pen   civifNT" 
Jiorirontal  thin  Stroked, 
vertical  thicks 


FIG.  10. 


upright 
Utter5. 


44 


4-   The  vertical  strokes  becoming  thinner  (d)  (with          The 
oblique   or   pointed   ends — not  square   ended)   in-      Develop- 
creased  the  tendency  to  narrow  letters.  ment  of 

Writing 


a 
narrow  forms. 


LAX 

^^/  Sudden  cKano! 

thuk  -fe  *HTii  : 


rtcavy  i 

feet  (b.)  thick 


qti£aiam 

FIG.  ii. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Caroline  letters — 
though  written  with  a  "slanted  pen" — kept  the 
open,  round  appearance  of  the  earlier  forms. 

45 


The  TENTH,  ELEVENTH,  AND  TWELFTH 

Develop-      CENTURT  WRITING.—  The  easy  use  of  the 

ment  of       slanted    pen,  and   the  lateral   compression    of  the 

Writing       letters  which  naturally  followed,  resulted  in  a  valu- 

able economy  of  time  and  space  in  the  making  of 

books.    This  lateral  compression  is  strongly  marked 

in   the   tenth  century   (see   fig.    12),  and    in   the 


rcdno^Komfuin 

drio  .' 

FIG.  12.  —  Psalter:  English  tenth  century. 
(See  also  Plate  VIII.) 

eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  it  caused  curves 
to  give  place  to  angles,  and  writing  to  become 
"  Gothic  "  in  character  (see  Plate  XL). 

THIRTEENTH,  FOURTEENTH,  AND 
FIFTEENTH  CENTURT  WRITING.—  The 
tendency  to  compression  continued,  and  a  further 
economy  of  space  was  effected  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  by  the  general  use  of 
much  smaller  writing  (see  fig.  13).  In  the 
fifteenth  century  writing  grew  larger  and  taller 
again,  but  the  letters  had  steadily  become  nar- 

46 


rower,  more  angular,  and  stiffer,  till  the  written  The 

page  consisted  of  rows  of  perpendicular  thick  strokes  Develop- 

with  heads  and  feet  connected  by  oblique  hair-lines  ment  of 

— which  often  look  as  if  they  had  been  dashed  in  Writing 
after  with  a  fine  pen — all  made  with  an  almost 
mechanical  precision  (see  Plate  XVII.). 


qucmuoamir 
Haomfcs  tt-bflrttfm  mnt  cautd 


t6  ufyotfftbttn 


MtUKMttttDtttSttL 

FIG.  ^.—Colophon  of  English  MS.,  dated  1254. 

ITALIAN  WRITING.—  In  Italy  alone  the 
roundness  of  the  earlier  hands  was  preserved,  and 
though  in  course  of  time  the  letters  were  affected 
by  the  "Gothic"  tendency,  they  never  lost  the 
curved  forms  or  acquired  the  extreme  angularity 
which  is  seen  in  the  writings  of  Northern  Europe 
(compare  Plates  X.  and  XL). 

At  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  the  Italian  scribes 
remodelled  their  "  hands  "  on  the  beautiful  Italian 
writing  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  (see 
Plates  X.  and  XVIIL,  XIX.,  XX.).  The  early 
Italian  printers  followed  after  the  scribes  and 
modelled  their  types  on  these  round  clear  letters. 
And  thus  the  fifteenth  century  Italian  formal 
writing  became  the  foundation  of  the  "  Roman  " 
small  letters,  which  have  superseded  all  others  for 
the  printing  of  books. 

47 


The  ITALICS.— The  Roman  Letters,  together  with 

Develop-      the  cursive  hand  of  the  time,  gave  rise  to  "  Italic  " 
ment  of       letters  (see  fig.  i,  &  pp.  311,  316,  483). 
Writing          ORNAMENTAL    LETTERS    originated    in 
the  simple  written   forms,  which  were  developed 
for    special    purposes,   and   were   made   larger   or 
written  in  colour  (see  VERSALS,  &c.,  figs,  i,  189). 
Their  first  object  was  to  mark  important  words, 
or   the    beginnings  of  verses,  chapters,  or  books. 
As  Initial  Letters  they  were  much  modified  and 
embellished,  and  so  gave  rise  to  the  art  of  Illumina- 
tion (see  pp.  113,  114). 


CHAPTER   II 

ACQUIRING    A    FORMAL    HAND:    (i)    TOOLS 

Acquiring  a  Formal  Hand :  Tools,  &c. — The  Desk — 
Paper  &  Ink— Pens :  The  Reed:  The  Quill—  Of 
Quills  generally — Pen-knife,  Cutting-slab,  &c. 

ACQUIRING    A    FORMAL    HAND  :    TOOLS,  &C. 

Acquiring     THE    simplest    way    of    learning    how    to    make 

a  Formal      letters  is  to  acquire  a  fine  formal  hand.     To  this 

Hand :        end  a  legible   and    beautiful    writing   (see  p.   70) 

(i)  Tools     should  be  chosen,  and  be  carefully  copied  with  a 

properly  cut  pen. 

For  learning  to   write,   the    following   tools  and 
materials  are  required  : — 
Desk. 

Writing-paper. 
Ink  and^//<?r. 

Pens  (Reed  and  Quill)  with  "springs." 
48 


Pen-knife,  sharpening-stone,  and  cutting-slab.  Acquiring 

Magnifying  glass.  a  Formal 

Two-foot  (preferably  three-foot)  rule,  and  pencil.  Hand  : 

Linen  pen-wiper.  (i)  Tools 


THE    DESK 


An  ordinary  desk  or  drawing-board  can  be  used, 
but  the  best  desk  is  made  by  hinging  a  drawing- 


FIG.  14. 

board  ("Imperial"  size)  to  the  edge  of  a  table. 
The  board  may  be  raised  and  supported  at  any 
desired  angle  by  a  hinged  support,  or  by  a  round 
tin  set  under  it  (fig.  14).  For  a  more  portable 
D  49 


Acquiring     desk  two  drawing-boards  may  be  similarly  hinged 
a  Formal  together    and    placed 

Hand:  ^^N^^  on  a  table  (fig.  15). 

(i)  Tools  /         ^^  A  tape  or  string  is 

tightly  stretched  — 
horizontally  —  across 
the  desk  to  hold  the 
writing-paper  (which, 
as  a  rule,  is  not  pinned 
on).  The  lower  part 
of  the  writing-paper 
is  held  and  protected 
FIG.  15.  bX  a  Piece  of  stout 

paper  or  vellum  fixed 

tightly,    with    drawing-pins,    across    and    over    it 
(fig.  1 6).      Under  the  writing-paper  there  should 


FIG.  1 6. 


be   a    "writing-pad?    consisting    of   one   or    two 
50 


sheets   of   blotting-paper,   or  some   other   suitable     Acquiring 
substance.1  a  Formal 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  lower,  front  edge       Hand: 
of  the  desk  bevelled  or  rounded,  so  that  the  tail     (i)  Tools 
part  of  a  deep  sheet,  which  may  hang  below  the 
table,   does   not    become    accidentally   creased   by 
being  pressed  against  it.     A  curved  piece  of  card- 
board  fixed   on   the  edge   will  answer   the   same 
purpose. 

PAPER  &  INK 

For  "  practice  "  any  smooth — not  glazed — paper 
will  do.  For  careful  work  a  smooth  hand-made 
paper  is  best  (pp.  103,  in). 

A  good,  prepared,  liquid  (carbon)  ink  is  best.  It 
should  be  as  black  as  possible,  without  being  too 
thick.  A  jet-black  ink  will  test  the  quality  of  the 
writing  by  "  showing  up  "  all  the  faults  ;  "  pale  " 
or  "  tinted "  inks  rather  conceal  the  faults,  and 
lend  a  false  appearance  of  excellence  (p.  322).  A 
thin  ink  greatly  adds  to  the  ease  of  writing  (see 
Addenda^  p.  23).  Waterproof  inks,  as  a  rule,  are  too 
thick  or  gummy,  and  do  not  flow  freely  enough. 

The  ink-bottle  is  kept  corked  when  not  in  use, 
to  keep  the  ink  clean  and  prevent  evaporation. 
Thick  or  muddy  ink  should  be  put  away  :  it  is 
not  worth  while  trying  to  use  it. 

A  small  brush  is  used  for  filling  the  pen. 

PENS 

A  Reed  or  Cane  pen  is  best  for  very  large 
writing — over  half  an  inch  in  height — and  there- 

1  Some  Eastern  scribes  use  a  "  pad  "  of  fur.  This,  or  a  piece 
of  springy  cloth,  or  other  elastic  substance,  would  probably  be 
helpful,  and  experiments  should  be  made  in  this  direction. 

51 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(i)  Tools 


fore  it  is  of  great 
use  in  studying  pen 
strokes  and  forms. 

A  Quill  is  best 
for  smaller  writing, 
and  is  used  for  all 
ordinary  MS.  work 
(pp.  54-6o). 

The  REED1  pen 
should  be  about  8 
inches  long. 

I.  One  end  is  cut 
off    obliquely     (fig. 

!?)• 

II.  The  soft  in- 
side part  is   shaved 
away  by  means  of  a 
knife  laid  flat  against 
it,  leaving  the  hard 
outer  shell  (fig.  18). 

III.  The   nib   is 
laid,    back    up,   on 
the  slab  (p.  61),  and 
— the    knife  -  blade 
being  vertical — the 
tip    is   cut    off   at 
right  angles  to  the 
shaft  (fig.  19). 

IV.  A     short 
longitudinal    slit 
(a-b)    is    made    by 


1  The  ordinary  "  Reed  pen"  of  the  artists'  colourman  is 
rather  soft  and  weak  for  formal  writing.  The  reeds  used  by 
the  native  scribes  in  India  and  Egypt,  and  some  of  the  harder 
English  reeds,  are  excellent.  A  fine,  hollow  cane  also  makes 
a  very  good  pen. 

52 


inserting  the  knife- 
blade  in  the  middle 
of  the  tip  (fig.  20). 

V.  A   pencil  or 
brush  -  handle       is 
held     under      the 
nib,  and  is  gently 
twitched    upwards 
to     lengthen     the 
slit  (fig.  21).     An 
ordinary  reed 
should  have  a  slit 
about  f  inch  long. 
A    very   stiff   pen 
may  have  in  addi- 
tion a  slit  on  either 
side  of  the  centre. 

The  left  thumb 
nail  is  pressed 
against  the  back 
of  the  pen — about 
i  inch  from  the 
tip — to  prevent  it 
splitting  too  far  up 
(see  also  fig.  27). 

VI.  The  nib  is 
laid,    back  up,   on 
the    slab,     and  — 
the      knife  -  blade 
being  vertical — the 
tip  is  cut  off  at  an 
angle  of  about  70° 
to  the  shaft,  remov- 
ing the  first  rough 
slit  a-b  (fig.  22). 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(i)  Tools 


V. 
FIG.  21. 


53 


Acquiring          VII.  A  strip  of  thin   metal  (very  thin  tin,  or 

a  Formal      clock   spring   with    the   "temper"   taken   out    by 

Hand:        heating  and  slowly   cooling)  is  cut  the  width  of 

(i)  Tools  the    nib    and    about 

t  I    2  inches  long.    This 

is     folded      into      a 
"spring"  (fig.  23). 

VIII.  The  spring 
is  inserted  into  the 
pen  (fig.  24). 

The  loop   a  be  is 
"  sprung  "  into  place, 
•    and  holds  the  spring 
in  the  right  position. 
The  loop  cd,  which 
should  be  rather  flat, 
holds  the  ink  in  the 
pen.      The   point  d 
from   the   end   of    the 


c. 


•a. 


FIG.  24. 


should    be    about   \   inch 
nib. 

THE  QUILL.— A  Turkey's  Quill  is  strong,  and 
suitable  for  general  writing.  As  supplied  by  the 
stationers  it  consists  of  a  complete  wing-feather, 
about  12  inches  long,  having  the  quill  part  cut  for 

%  ordinary  use.  For 
careful  writing  it 
should  be  re-made 
thus : — 

I.     The     quill 

I  should  be  cut  down 

FlG-  2$-  to    7    or    8    inches 

(fig.  25) ;   the  long  feather  if  left   is   apt  to    be 
in  the  way. 

II.  The  "  barbs  "  or  filaments  of  the  feather  are 
stripped  off  the  shaft  (fig.  26). 
54 


III.  The  nib  already   has  a  slit  usually   about     Acquiring 
inch  long.     This  is  sufficient  in  a  fairly  pliant      a  Formal 

Hand  : 
(i)  Tools 


FIG.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


pen  ;  in  a  very  stiff  pen  (see  p.  60)  the  slit  may  be 
lengthened  to  f  inch.  This  may  be  done  with 
care  by  holding  a  half-nib  between  the  forefinger 

55 


and  thumb  of  each  hand,  but  the  safest  way  is  to 
twitch  the  slit  open  (fig.  27),  using  the  end  of 
another  pen  (or  a  brush-handle)  as  explained  under 
Reed,  V.  (see  p.  53). 

IV.  The  sides  of  the  nib  are  pared  till  the  width 
across  the  tip  is  rather  less  than  the  width  desired  1 

(%.  28). 


FIG.  28. 

V.  The  nib  is  laid,  back  up,  on  the  glass  slab, 
and  the  extreme  tip  is  cut  off  obliquely  to  the  slit, 
the  knife  blade  being  slightly  sloped,  and  its  edge 
forming  an  angle  of  about  70°  with  the  line  of 
the  shaft  (fig.  29  ;  see  also  fig.  36). 

1  The  width  of  the  cut  nib  corresponds  exactly  with  the 
width  of  the  thickest  stroke  which  the  pen  will  make  in 
writing. 

56 


The  shaft  rests  lightly 
in  the  left  hand  (not 
gripped  and  not  pressed 
down  on  slab  at  all),  and 
the  knife  blade  is  entered 
with  a  steady  pressure. 

If  the  nib  is  then  not 
wide  enough  it  may  be 
cut  again  ;  if  too  wide, 
the  sides  may  be  pared 
down. 

Cut  very  little  at  a 
time  off  the  tip  of  the 
nib  ;  a  heavy  cut  is  apt 
to  force  the  pen  out  of 
shape  and  spoil  the  edge 
of  the  nib. 

VI.  The  nib  should 
then  be  examined  with 
the  magnifying  glass. 
Hold  the  pen,  back 
down,  over  a  sheet  of 
white  paper,  and  see  that 
the  ends  of  the  two  half- 
nibs  are  in  the  same 
straight  line  a-b  (fig. 

30). 

The  nib  should  have 
an  oblique  chisel-shaped 
tip,  very  sharply  cut 

(%.  so- 

A  magnifying  glass  is 
necessary  for  examining 
a  fine  pen  ;  a  coarse  pen 
may  be  held  up  against 


fcntfe  blade  (w 


r*\ 


Slab 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(i)  Tools 


Acquiring  the  light  from  a  window — a  finger-tip  being  held 

a  Formal  just  over  the  nib  to  direct  the  eye  (fig.  32). 

Hand: 
(i)  Tools 


"EE«c* 

FIG.  33. 


typical  nibs  recruiting  natttotf 
FIG.  34. 


A  nib  in  which  the  slit  does  not  quite  close  may  be 
bent  down  to  bring  the  two  parts  together  (fig.  33). 

58 


Uneven  or  blunt  nibs  (fig.  34)  must  be  carefully 
re-cut. 

VII.  The  Spring  (see  Reed,  VII.)  (about  ^  inch 
by  ij  inch)  is  placed  so 
that  the   point  is   about 
TV  inch  from  the  end  of 
the  nib.     The  long  loop 
should  be  made  rather  flat 
to    hold    plenty   of   ink    B. 
(A,  fig.  35) — neither  too 
much   curved    (B  :    this 
holds  only  a  drop),  nor    C. 
quite  flat  (C  :  this  draws 
the    ink    up    and    away 
from  the  nib). 

OF   QUILLS   GENERALLY 

For  ordinary  use  the  nib  may  be  cut  with  a  fairly 
steep  angle,  as  shown 
(magnified)  at  (a)  (fig. 

36). 

But  it  is  better  for  fine, 
sharp  writing  that  the 
angle  be  made  very 
sharp  :  the  knife  blade 
is  laid  back  (much  flatter 
than  is  shown  in  fig. 
29)  and  the  quill  is  cut 
quite  thin ;  the  knife 
blade  is  then  held  verti- 
cal and  the  extreme  tip 
of  the  nib  is  cut  off  sharp 
and  true  (£,  fig.  36). 
FlG-  36.  For  large  writing,  the 

curved  inside  of  the  quill  is  pared  fiat  (c,  d,  fig.  36) 

59 


For  very  £nc  stroke* 
the  nib  kos  a  si 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(i)  Tools 


to  give  full  strokes.  If  the  nib  be  left  curved  and 
hollow  underneath  (^),  it  is  apt  to  make  hollow 
strokes. 

The  pen  may  be  made  more  pliant  by  scraping 
it  till  it  is  thinner,  or  by  cutting  the  "  shoulder  " 
(a-b,  fig.  29)  longer,  or  stiffer  by  cutting  the  nib 
back  until  the  "  shoulder  "  is  short. 

Goose  and  Crow  Quills  (see  p.  172). 

The  main  advantages  of  a  quill  over  a  metal  pen 
are,  that  the  former  may  be  shaped  exactly  as  the 
writer  desires,  and  be  re-cut  when  it  becomes  blunt. 

A  metal  pen  may  be  sharpened  on  an  oilstone, 
but  the  process  takes  so  much  longer  that  there  is 
no  saving  in  time  :  it  is  not  easily  cut  to  the  exact 
shape,  and  it  lacks  the  pleasant  elasticity  of  the  quill. 

A  gold  pen  is  probably  the  best  substitute  for  a 
quill,  and  if  it  were  possible  to  have  a  sharp, 
"  chisel-edged "  iridium  tip  on  the  gold  nib,  it 
would  be  an  extremely  convenient  form  of  pen. 
A  "  fountain  pen  "  might  be  used  with  thin  ink. 

PEN-KNIFE,    CUTTING-SLAB,    &C. 

THE  KNIFE.  — Quill  makers  use  a  special 
knife.  A  surgical  scalpel  makes  an  excellent  pen- 
knife. The  blade  should  be  fairly  stout,  as  the 


FIG.  37. 

edge  of  a  thin  blade  is  easily  damaged.     It  should 
be  ground  almost  entirely  on  the  right  side  of  the 
blade  (fig.  37)  and  kept  very  sharp. 
60 


THE  SLAB.  —  A  piece  of  glass  (preferably  Acquiring 
white)  may  be  used  for  fine  quills ;  hard  wood,  a  Formal 
bone,  or  celluloid  for  reed  and  cane  pens.  Hand : 

SHARPENING  STONE.— A  "Turkey"  (fine)  ( i )  Tools 
or  "  Washita  "  (fine  or  coarse  grained)  stone. 

MAGNIFYING  GLASS.— A.  magnifying  glass 
(about  I  inch  in  diameter)  is  necessary  for  examin- 
ing fine  pen  nibs  to  see  if  they  are  "  true."  A 
"  pocket "  glass  is  the  most  suitable  for  general  use, 
and  for  the  analysis  of  small  writing,  &c. 

R  ULE. — A  2,  or  3-foot  wood  rule  having  brass 
strips  let  in  to  protect  the  edges,  or  a  metal  rule. 

LINEN  PEN-WIPER.— K  piece  of  an  old 
linen  handkerchief  may  be  used  to  keep  the  pen 
clean. 

CHAPTER  III 

ACQUIRING  A    FORMAL   HAND:    (2)   METHODS 

Position  of  the  Desk — The  Writing  Level — Use  of  the 
Pen — Holding  the  Pen — Filling  the  Pen,  &c. 

POSITION    OF    THE    DESK 

Always  write  at  a  slope.     This  enables  you  to  sit     Acquiring 
up  comfortably  at  your  work,  and  to  see  the  MS.      a  Formal 
clearly  as  though  it  were  on  an  easel — and,  by  the        Hand : 
resulting  horizontal  position  of  the  pen,  the  ink  is  (2)  Methods 
kept  under  control.     It  may  be  seen  from  ancient 
pictures  that  this  was  the  method   of  the  scribes 
(see  Frontispiece).     Never  write  on  a  flat  table  ;   it 
causes  the  writer  to  stoop,  the  MS.  is  seen  fore- 
shortened, and  the  ink  flows  out  of  the  pen  too 
rapidly. 

61 


Acquiring         The  slope  of  the  desk  may  be  about,  or  rather 
a  Formal      less  than,  45°  to  begin  with  :  as  the  hand  becomes 


Hand: 
(2)  Method* 


accustomed  to  it,  it  may 
be    raised    to    about    60° 

(%  38). 

The  "heel"  of  the 
right  hand  may  be  tired 
at  first,  but  it  soon  grows 
used  to  the  position.  A 
rest  for  the  left  arm,  if 
necessary,  can  be  attached 
to  the  left  side  of  the 
board. 

Lighting.  The  desk  is 
placed  very  near  to  a  win- 
dow, so  that  a  strong  light 
falls  on  it  from  the  left. 
Direct  sunlight  may  be 
cut  off  by  fixing  a  sheet 
of  thin  white  paper  in  the 
window.  Careful  work 
should  be  done  by  daylight. 
Work  done  by  artificial 
light  always  appears  faulty 
and  unsatisfactory  when 
viewed  by  day. 

THE    WRITING    LEVEL 


Each  penman  will  find 
for    himself    the    writing 
level    along     which      his 
pen    will     move    most     naturally    and    conveni- 
ently  (see   figs.    39   and    16).      The  paper  guard 
should    be    pinned    on   about    I    inch    below    the 
62 


FIG.  38. 


FIG.  39. 


writing   level  :    the   tape   is   fixed    across  about  3     Acquiring 
inches   above  the    guard.      In    the   case    of  very      a  Formal 
large  writing  the  space  between  the  tape  and  the       Hand : 
guard  is  greater,  and  in  the  case  of  a  very  small  (2)  Methods 
MS.  it  is  less. 

The  writing  level  is  kept  constant.  When  one 
line  has  been  written,  the  writing  paper — which 
is  placed  behind  the  tape  and  the  guard — is  pulled 
up  for  another  line. 

USE    OF   THE    PEN 

For  the  practical  study  of  pen-forms  use  a  cane 
or  a  reed  pen — or  a  quill  cut  very  broad — giving 
a  broad,  firm,  thick  stroke.  It  is  the  chisel  edge 
(p.  57)  of  the  nib  which  gives  the  "clean  cut" 
thick  and  thin  strokes  and  the  graduated  curved 
strokes  characteristic  of  good  writing  (fig.  40). 


FIG.  40. 


Therefore,  tet  the  nib  glide  about  on  the  surface 
with  the  least  possible  pressure,  making  natural 
pen-strokes  the  thickness  of  which  is  only  varied 

63 


Acquiring     by    the    different    directions    in    which    the    nib 
a  Formal      moves  (see  Addenda,  p.  23). 

Hand:  It  is  very  important  that  the  nib  be  cut  "sharp," 

(2)  Methods  and  as  often  as  its  edge  wears  blunt  it  must  be  re- 
sharpened.  It  is  impossible  to  make  "  clean  cut " 
strokes  with  a  blunt  pen  (see  Addenda,  p.  25). 

When  the  nib  is  cut  back,  the  "shoulder" 
should  be  cut  back  to  preserve  the  elasticity  of 
the  pen  (p.  60). 


HOLDING    THE    PEN 

THE  HAND  holds  the  pen  lightly  and  easily. 
A  good  method  is  to  loop  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger over,  and  slightly  gripping,  the  shaft  of  the 
pen,  and  support  the  shaft  from  below  with  the 
second  finger.  The  third  and  fourth  fingers  are 
tucked,  out  of  the  way,  into  the  palm  (figs.  41,  45). 

The  pen  should  be  so  lightly  held  that  the  act  of 
writing  should  draw  the  edge  of  the  nib  into  perfect 
contact  with  the  paper,  both  the  half-nibs  touching  the 
surface.  (To  make  sure  that  the  contact  is  perfect, 
make  experimental  thick  strokes  on  a  scrap  of 
paper — pinned  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the  desk 
— and  see  that  they  are  "true,"  i.e.  that  they  are 
of  even  width,  with  "  clean  cut "  edges  and  ends.) 
The  writer  should  be  able  to  feel  what  the  nib  is 
doing.  If  the  pen  be  gripped  stiffly  the  edge  of 
the  nib  cannot  be  felt  on  the  paper ;  and  it  will 
inevitably  be  forced  out  of  shape  and  prematurely 
blunted. 

A  thin  slip  of  bone — a  "  folder  "  or  the  handle 
of  the  pen-knife  will  do — is  commonly  held  in  the 
left  hand  to  keep  the  paper  flat  and  steady  (see 
fig.  41). 

64 


THE     CUSTOM  ART    MANNER.  — The  Acquiring 

ancient  scribe  probably  held  his  pen  in  the  manner  a  Formal 

most  convenient  to  himself;  and  we,  in  order  to  Hand: 

write  with   freedom,  should  hold  the  pen  in  the  (2)  Methods 
way  to  which,  by  long  use,  we  have  been  accus- 


Position,  of"  the 
hourixlsuiiKile 


tomed  ;  provided  that,  for  writing  an  upright  round- 
hand^  the  pen  be  so  manipulated  and  cut  as  to  make  fine 
horizontal  thin  strokes  and  clean  vertical  thick  strokes 
(see  fig.  40,  &  footnote,  p.  304). 

SLANTED    SHAFT,   &V.— Most   people   are 
accustomed  to  holding  a  pen  slanted  away   from 
the  right  shoulder.     The   nib  therefore  is  cut  at 
E  65 


ANCLE 
SHAFr 


Acquiring     an  oblique  angle l  to  the  shaft,  so  that,  while  the 
a  Formal      shaft  is  slanted,  the  edge  of  the  nib  is  parallel  with  the 
Hand  :  horizontal  line    of  the 

(2)  Methods  Horizon ta£  line  of  PQ?<*~'  paper,  and  will  there- 
fore produce  a  hori- 
zontal thin  stroke  and 
a  vertical  thick  stroke. 
For  example  :  if  the 
shaft  is  held  slanted  at 
an  angle  of  70°  with 
the  horizontal,  the 
nib  is  cut  at  an  angle 
of  70°  with  the  shaft 
(fig.  42).  The  angle 
of  the  nib  with  the 
shaft  may  vary  from 
90°  (at  right  angles) 
to  about  70°,  accord- 
ing to  the  slant  at 
which  the  shaft  is  held 

(%•  43)- 

If  the  writer  pre- 
fers an  extremely 
slanted  shaft,  to  cut 
the  nib  correspond- 
ingly obliquely  would 


NIB  CUT  AT 
OF  JO  DECREE 


FIG.  42. 


NIBS  CUT  AT  VARIOUS  ANGLES 
FIG.  43. 


weaken  it,  so  it  is  better  to  counteract  the  slant  by 

slightly  tilting  the  paper  (fig.  44). 

To  produce  the  horizontal  thin  stroke,  therefore : 
The  slant  at  which  the  shaft  is  held. 
The  angle  at  which  the  nib  is  cut,  and 
The  tilt  which  may  be  given  to  the  paper  : 

1  If  the  edge  of  the  nib  were  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  shaft, 
obviously  the  horizontal  stroke  would  not  be  thin,  and  the  true 
thick  and  thin  strokes  would  be  oblique  (see  "slanted  pen" 
writing — figs.  9  &  n). 

66 


must  be  so  adjusted,  one  to  another,  that  the  chisel 
edge  of  the  nib  is  parallel  to  the  horizontal  line  of 

the  paper.  Before 
writing,  make  trial 
strokes  on  a  scrap  of 
paper  to  see  that  this 
is  so  :  the  vertical 
thick  strokes  should 
be  square  ended  and 
the  full  width  of  the 
nib,  the  horizontal 
strokes  as  fine  as 
possible. 

HORIZONTAL 
SHAFT,  &c.—The 
pen  shaft  is  held  approximately  horizontal.     This  will 


TILTED   PAPER, 

FIG.  44. 


desk  is 

shewn  here,  \vith 
a,  slope  of  about  4jf 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand  : 

(2)  Method. 


FIG.  45. 

be  found  the  natural  position  for  it  when  the  slope 

67 


board  [wend- 
pen  tlevated. 

fa 


\>oard  raised: 
>en  depressed 


Acquiring     of  the  desk  is  about  50°  or  60°.     It  gives  complete 
a  Formal  control  of  the  ink  in 

Hand :  ^.      .^-ssss*"""  the  Den,    which 

(2)  Methods 

noniiAi 
(.*•) 


pen,  wnicn  can 
be  made  to  run  faster 
or  slower  by  slightly 
elevating  or  depress- 
ing the  shaft  (fig.  45). 

The  writing- board 
may  be  slightly  lowered 
or  raised  with  the 
object  of  elevating 
or  depressing  the  pen 
shaft  (fig.  46  &  p.  1 1 8). 

The  pen  makes  a  con- 
siderable angle  with  the 
writing  surface,  so  that 
the  ink,  which  is  held 
in  the  hollow  of  the 
nib,  comes  in  contact 
with  the  paper  at  the 
very  extremity  of  the 
nib,  making  very  fine 
strokes  (a,  fig.  47). 

The  spring  is  ad- 
justed carefully,  the  tip 
being  approximately 
-fa  inch  from  the  tip 
of  the  nib.  The 
nearer  the  spring  is 
to  the  end  of  the 
nib,  the  faster  the  ink 
flows.  The  loop  must 
be  kept  flattish  in 
order  to  hold  the  ink 
well  (see  fig.  35). 


FIG.  46. 


FIG.  47. 


68 


FILLING    THE    PEN,    &C.  Acquiring 

It  is  convenient  to  stand  the  ink,  &c.,  beside  the        Hand  • 
desk  on  the  left,  and  for  this  purpose  a  little  cup-  /2\  Methods 
shaped  bracket  or  clip  may  be  attached  to  the  edge 
of  the  writing-board.     The  filling-brush  stands  in 
the  ink-bottle  (p.  51)  or  pot  of  colour  (p.  176),  and 
is  taken  up  in  the  left  hand  ;  the  pen,  retained  in 
the  right  hand,  being  brought  over  to  the  left  to  be 
filled. 

The  back  of  the  nib  is  kept  dry  (a,  fig.  48).     A 


Ink  }<ept  below  can  only  (ol 
low  the  fharp  tub  ancL<we 
sharp  sttvkes 


Ink  occurring  on  batk  of  nib 
forms  a  drop_  with  ink  belw, 
So  that  you  write  with  a  anTp 
and,  cannot  maJ<e  sharp  stovk&. 

FIG.  48. 

very  convenient  and  perfectly  clean  method,  when 
care  is  taken,  of  removing  any  ink  on  the  back  of 
the  pen  is  to  draw  it  across  the  back  of  the  left 
fore-finger. 

In  careful  work  the  pen  should  be  tried,  on  a 


Acquiring     scrap  of  paper,  almost  every  time  it  is  filled  (to  see 
a  Formal      that  it  is  not  too  full  and  that  the  ink  is  flowing 

Hand :         rightly). 

(2)  Methods  The  nib  is  kept  clean.  A  carbon  ink  (p.  5 i),  through 
gradual  evaporation,  is  apt  to  clog  the  nib  (especi- 
ally in  hot  weather) ;  therefore  every  now  and 
then,  while  the  nib  is  in  use,  the  spring  is  taken 
out  and  the  whole  thoroughly  cleaned.  It  is  im- 
possible to  write  well  with  a  dirty  pen. 


CHAPTER   IV 

ACQUIRING    A    FORMAL    HAND  :    (3)    MODELS 

Models — Notes  on  Construction  :  Script  I. — Coupling 
the  Letters — Spacing  :  Letters,  Words,  &  Lines — 
Uncial  Capitals  :  Script  II. — Numerals  &  Punctua- 
tion Marks — Of  Copying  MSS.  Generally. 

MODELS 

Acquiring     THE  best  training  is  found  in  the  practice  of  an 

a  Formal      upright  round-hand  (p.  302).     Having  mastered  such 

Hand :        a  writing,  the  penman  can  acquire  any  other  hands — 

(3)  Models    sloping  or  angular — with  comparative  ease  (p.  323). 

The  English  Half-Uncial  writing  in  Plate  VII. 

is  an  excellent  model.     Those  who  have  sufficient 

time  to  spare  for  the  careful  study  of  this,  or  any 

other   legible    and     beautiful    round-hand,   should 

obtain  access  to  the  MSS.  in  a  museum,  or  procure 

good  facsimiles  (see  Plates  at  end  of  Book,  &  p.  388). 

Those  who  have  not  sufficient  time  for  a  careful 

and   thorough  study  of  an  early  MS.  will  find  it 

70 


easier  to  begin  with   a  simplified  and  modernised 
writing,  such  as  Script  I.  (fig.  49). 


Acquiring 
a  Formal 

Hand: 
(3)  Models 


Half-Uncial(I.). 

*- 

FIG.  49. 

Before  copying  a  hand  it  is  well  to  examine  care- 
fully the  manuscript  from  which  it  is  taken  :  observe 
its  general  appearance  :  note  the  character  and 
mode  of  the  ruling,  and  the  sizes  and  relative  pro- 
portions of  page,  text,  margins,  and  ornaments. 
With  regard  to  the  actual  forms  of  the  letters  and 
the  mode  of  their  arrangement,  such  a  method  of 
analysis  as  the  following  will  be  found  useful,  as  an 
aid  to  accuracy  in  copying,  and  definiteness  in  self- 
criticism. 

7* 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 


METHQD    Qf  ANALYSIS. 


THE  WRITING 
(Ruling) 


general  character  : 


Double    or    single 
lines,    &c.    (see 

PP.  3°4>  3°5): 

Letters  round  or  angular  : 

upright  or  sloping : 
coupled  or  separate  :: 

2.  THIN   STROKES:  horizontal   or   ob- 

lique   (see    figs. 
10,  9): 

3.  THICK  STROKES:  heary,  medium,  or 

light     (see    fig. 
183): 


4.  "HEADS"    & 
"FEET": 


character   (see   fig. 
145): 


5.  STEMS  (ascending       short,  medium,  or 

fcJ*  descending):  l°ng     (see      fig. 

183): 

6.  SPACING  (Letters,    close  or  wide  (see 

Words,  fig.  154): 

Lines)  : 

7.  ARRANGEMENT:  in  mass  (of  equal 

lines),  or  in 
column  (of  un- 
equal lines)  (see 
fig.  '54): 

8.  MEASUREMENTS  width     of     thick 

(\3  proportions  see        stroke  (see  p.  83): 
pp.  324,  327)  :  height  of  o  and  d 
(see  pp.  82,  84)  : 
writing  lines,  dis- 
tance apart  (see 
p.  8i): 

9.  COMPONENT  number  and  forms 

PARTS:  (see  pp.  75,  81, 

84): 


72 


EXAMPLE:  Analysis 

of  Script  I.  (as 

in  fig.  50). 

Modernised      Half- 
Uncial. 
Double       lines      (tee 

fg><  59.  65). 

round. 

upright. 

coupled. 

horizontal. 


medium. 

solid,  triangular,  Is'c. 
medium. 


fairly  close  (see  figs. 

54,  55)- 


in  mass  o   equal  lines 
(see Jig.  66). 


I = about  £s"  -wide. 

d= ;;  {\"Mgh\ 

Lines  l"  apart. 

a  has  3  strok  s. 

b    i,     3        » 

f    M     2         ,. 

and  so  on  (see Jig.  51). 


NOTES    ON    CONSTRUCTION — SCRIPT    I. 

The  pen  generally  is  held  so  as  to  give  approxi- 
mately horizontal  thin  strokes  (see  p.  66),  but  in 
making  v  (w,  y)  and  x,  parts  of  z,  &c.,  it  is 
"slanted."  In  figs.  51  and  57  these  forms  are 
marked  with  a  small  diagonal  cross  X  (see  also  p.  25). 

Most  of  the  strokes  begin  as  down-strokes,  but  at 
the  end  of  a  down-stroke,  when  the  ink  is  flowing 
freely,  the  stroke  may  be  continued  in  an  upward 
direction  (as  in  coupling-strokes ,  &c.,  the  feet  of 
letters,  the  thin  stroke  of  x,  and,  if  preferred,  in 
making  the  last  stroke  of  g",  s,  and  y). 

While  the  ink  is  still  wet  in  a  down-stroke,  the 
nib  may  be  replaced  on  it  and  be  pushed  w^ward 
and  outward  to  form  the  round  arch  in  b,  h,  m,  n, 
p,  and  r.  This  stroke,  reversed,  is  also  used  for  the 
top  of  t. 

The  making  of  these  UP-strokes  is  shown 
diagrammatically  in  fig.  51. 

NOTE. — The  forms  -foinx  in  fig.  51  contain 
all  the  principal  strokes  in  this  alphabet,  and  are 
therefore  useful  for  early  practice. 


Acquiring 
a  Formal 

Hand: 
(3)  Models 


COUPLING    THE    LETTERS 

The  letters  are  joined  together  by  means  of 
their  coupling-strokes,  which  for  this  purpose  may 
be  slightly  drawn  out,  and  forward,  from  the 
naturally  round  forms  of  the  letters  (see  c,  e,  &c., 
fig.  52  &  fig.  59). 

The  coupling-strokes  are  finishing  strokes — and  as 
such  are  akin  to  serifs  (p.  244) — growing  out  of  or 
added  to  such  stems  as  need  "finishing." 

Coupling  enables  one  to  write  faster  and  with 

73 


Acquiring 
a  Formal 

Hand: 
(3)  Models 


hjuklrriri 
oporstn 
VUJXLJZ& 


FIG.  50. 
74 


minx 

ortnal  po5iricm(S*fal#"' p6^  •    m.&  n. 


+  normal 


CLce.ni 


UP 


FIG.  51. 


75 


liring  more  freedom,  the  concluding  or  "  coupling  "  stroke 
a  Formal 
Hand: 

(3)  Models  T  rvrrl  **Ki  1*1  rv^^-n  «  ft.ati) 


Iff. 

E 


*  .........  Joul 


fr*  front. 


mnprvwxy 


anwtiiur- 


thus& 


, 

ri#ht.rt. 


*   i 
specol 

SF 

rr 


COUPLING  OF  LETTERS 

forreftxnce  <m(y*          •* ^ 

^•/*  *v^        *f-    f  rC  natuitdfy. 

Shjorixur  now  me  Utters  of  Script  I.  join  mosr 


FIG.  52. 

not   being  slowed  down^  but  written  with  a  dash, 
which  is  covered  by  the  first  stroke  of  the  succeed- 
76 


ing  letter.      It   keeps  the  individual   words  more     Acquiring 
distinct,  and  therefore  permits  closer  spacing  of  the      a  Formal 
text.      Coupling  is  for  convenience  and  legibility,        Hand  : 
and  where  it  tends  to  interfere  with  legibility,  we    (3)  Models 
must  be  careful.     The  freer  and  more  cursive  the 
hand,  the  greater  is  the  tendency  to  join  and  run 
letters  together,  as  in  ordinary  writing. 

It  is  preferable  to  couple  letters  below,  if  possible. 
Couplings  above  are  sometimes  apt  to  confuse  the 
reading  ;  for  example,  the  cross-bar  of  t  (though 
the  most  natural  coupling  for  the  scribe  to  use — see 
petals,  Plate  VII.)  should  generally  be  made  to 
pass  over  or  fall  short  of  the  succeeding  letter  (see 
fig.  52). 

SPACING  :     LETTERS,    WORDS,    &    LINES 

The  letters  of  a  word  are  fitted  together  so 
that  there  is  a  general  effect  of  evenness.  This 
evenness  is  only  to  be  attained  by  practice  :  it  is 
characteristic  of  rapid  skilful  writing,  and  cannot 
be  produced  satisfactorily  by  any  system  of  measure- 
ment while  the  writer's  hand  is  still  slow  and 
uncertain.  It  is  worth  noting,  however,  that  the 
white  interspaces  vary  slightly,  while  the  actual 
distances  between  the  letters  vary  considerably, 
according  to  whether  the  adjacent  strokes  curve  (or 
slant)  away  or  are  perpendicular  (figs.  53,  152). 

It  is  sufficient  for  the  beginner  to  take  care  that 
two  curved  letters  are  made  very  near  each  other, 
and  that  two  straight  strokes  are  spaced  well  apart. 

If  the  curves  are  too  far  apart  there  will  be  spots 
of  light,  and  where  several  heavy  stems  are  made 
too  close  together,  "  blots  "  of  dark,  marring  the 
evenness  of  the  page. 

77 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(3)  Models 


Words  are  kept  as  close  as  is  compatible  with 


Cjrutest  distance:     Less^. 
Straight  ample* 


ID  TO 

Stmivht  1  Jtnuqht 

anwl&i  JKairftd, 

-fa  curved.          not  coupled- 


Least  Aist- 

: 
o^ve^. 


TWO 

STRAIGHT 
5TROKE5. 


& 
CURVED 


THE  5PACWG  OF  SMAU  LETTER* 
firnftrente  only: 

S(iavin<r  fiow  the  Sntatl  Letters 
are  spaced  nwst  natumlly  . 


FIG.  53. 

legibility.     The  average  space  between  two  words 
is  the  width  of  the  letter  o  (fig.  54). 
78 


FIG.  54. 

The  Lines  in  massed  writing  (see  p.  262)  are  kept 
as  close  together  as  is  compatible  with  legibility. 
The  usual  distance  apart  of  the  writing-lines  is  about 
three  times  the  height  of  the  letter  o  (see  also  p.  327). 

The  descending  strokes  of  the  upper  line  must 
"  clear "  the  ascending  strokes  of  the  lower  line. 


Acquiring 
a  Formal 

Hand: 
(3)  Models 


distance  apart 

r     '- 


FIG.  55. 

Interlocking  of  these  strokes  may  be  avoided  by  the 
experimental  placing  of  p  over  d  (fig.  55). 


UNCIAL    CAPITALS  :     SCRIPT    II. 

These  modernised  Uncials  (see  fig.  56,  &  p.  300) 
are  intended  to  go  with  Script  I.,  and  their  analysis 
and  mode  of  construction  are  almost  identical  with 
those  of  Script  I.  (see  pp.  72,  73). 

79 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(3)  Models 


ABpbe 
Fqbijk 

LCDNO 
RST 

Wl 


MCMIV.      Uncial*. 

80  FIG.  56. 


O'tlJE 

G/  s  ^  ^9±    ^f  Vv  ^iJUJr^C    ^iOI*tfl>  TTl^V 

4    ^f      Ql««W^^MA 
•%;:»f!^Ut 

/^  ^  ^*  v^ 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(3)  Models 


Grouping  :  Uncials  have  no  coupling-strokes  ;  when 
several  are  used  together,  they  are  not  joined,  but 
evenly  grouped,  allowing  as  before  for  curves  and 
straight  strokes  (see  p.  77). 

Spacing  :  (a)  When  used  with  Script  /.,  Uncials  are 
written  on  the   same   lines,   and 
have  to  follow  the  same  spacing 
(in  spite  of  their  longer  stems), 
(b)  When  Uncials  are  used  by  themselves, 
their  spacing  maybe  wider  (p.  297). 
NOTE. — The  height  of  Uncial  o  is  about  equal  to 
the  height  of  the  Half-  Uncial  d. 

NUMERALS   &    PUNCTUATION    MARKS 

(See  fig.  57.) 

These  are  best  made  with  a  "  slanted  "  pen  (fig.  9). 

When  writing  "  Arabic  numerals,"  I  and  0  may 
be  made  on  the  tine,  2468  ascending,  and  3579  de- 
scending. 

OF    COPYING   MSS.   GENERALLY 

When  copying  a  MS.  it  is  best  to  choose  a 
complete  page — or  part  of  a  page — to  be  copied  in 
facsimile. 

Two  or  three  lines  are  copied  to  begin  with  ; 
then  the  composition  of  the  individual  letters  and 
words  is  studied  by  means  of  a  large  pen  ;  a'nd 
finally  the  whole  page  is  copied  in  facsimile.  (Of 
practising,  see  pp.  85,  86). 

Make  a  general  examination  and  analysis  as 
suggested  at  p.  71.  Accurate  measurements  will 
be  found  helpful. 

Take  the  heights  of  the  o  and  the  d,  and  the 
distance  apart  of  the  writing-lines  with  dividers 

82 


The  width  of  the  thick  stroke  is  best  found  by 
making  experimental  thick  strokes — the  fu// width 
of  the  pen  nib — on  a  scrap  of  paper  :  cut  the  paper 
in  half  across  the  thick  strokes,  and  place  the  cut 
edge  on  the  thickest  strokes  in  the  original  MS.,  you 
will  then  find  whether  the  pen  nib  should  be  cut 
wider  or  narrower. 

The  direction  of  the  thickest  strokes  is  approxi- 
mately at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  thin 
strokes ;  which  commonly  approaches  the  horizontal 
in  early  round  hands,  and  is  oblique  in  other  hands 
(see  figs.  9  and  10).  The  positions  both  of  these 
strokes  in  the  model,  and  of  your  pen,  determine  the 
angle  of  the  nib.  Therefore,  cut  the  nib  across  at  such 
an  angle  to  the  shaft  of  the  pen  that,  when  you  hold  the 
pen  naturally,  the  direction  of  the  thin  strokes  which  it 
makes  on  the  writing  paper  will  coincide  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  thin  strokes  in  the  model ;  but 

(a)  The  way  in  which  the  shaft  is  held, 

(b)  The  angle  at  which  the  nib  is  cut, 

(c)  The  position  of  the  writing  paper, 

may  all  be  slightly  varied,  so  that  the  direction  of 
the  thin  strokes  can  be  followed  exactly  (see  p.  66). 

The  writing  paper  is  cut  and  ruled  exactly  in 
accordance  with  the  model  ;  and  the  heights  of  the 
letters  and  the  widths  of  the  thick  strokes  in  the 
copy  agree  as  nearly  as  possible  with  those  in  the 
original.  It  is  therefore  a  good  test  for  accuracy 
— when  a  few  lines  of  writing  have  been  copied — to 
measure  and  compare  their  lengths.  If  they  corre- 
spond with  their  originals,  it  goes  far  to  prove  the 
copy  a  good  one. 

Before  copying  more  of  the  page,  the  construc- 
tion of  the  letters  should  be  carefully  studied.  The 
number  and  the  forms  of  pen-strokes  in  each  letter 

83 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(3)  Models 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand  : 

(3)  Models 


are  found  by  examination — with  a  magnifying  glass 
if  necessary — and  by  the  experimental  putting  to- 
gether of  strokes,  to  form  a  similar  letter.  For  this 
a  large  pen,  such  as  a  reed,  is  useful,  and  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  write  individual  letters  and  words  exactly 
two,  three,  or  four  times  their  height  in  the  model  : 
both  the  pen  nib  and  the  individual  letters  are  made 
correspondingly  two,  three,  or  four  times  as  wide  as 
in  the  original. 

It  is  particularly  important,  in  copying,  to  pre- 
serve accurately  the  proportion  of  the  thick  stroke  to 
the  height  and  width  of  a  letter  (see  p.  324).  These 
are  conveniently  measured  by  the  pen  nib  itself,  or 
by  the  estimated  width  of  the  thick  stroke  ;  thus, 
in  the  writing  shown  in  fig.  50,  the  width  of  the  o 
is  approximately  fivey  and  the  height  approximately 
four,  times  the  width  of  the  thick  stroke. 

Not  only  must  the  copier  ascertain  what  the 
forms  are  like  and  what  are  their  proportions,  but 
he  must  try  to  find  out  how  they  were  made.  This 
is  of  the  greatest  importance,  for  the  manner  of 
making  a  letter,  or  even  a  single  stroke,  affects  its 
form  and  character  with  a  definite  tendency  (see 
p.  416  &  fig.  172).  And  this  becomes  more  marked 
the  faster  the  writing.  An  apparently  right  form 
may  yet  be  wrongly — if  slowly — made  ;  but  in 
rapid  writing,  a  wrong  manner  of  handling  the  pen 
will  inevitably  produce  wrong  forms.  As  the  real 
virtue  of  penmanship  is  attained  only  when  we  can 
write  quickly,  it  is  well  worth  training  the  hand 
from  the  beginning  in  the  proper  manner. 

Patient  and  careful  examination  should  be  made 
of  the  changing  pen-strokes,  and  of  the  mode  in 
which  they  join — to  form  letters — and  begin  and  end 
— to  form  "  heads  "  and  "  feet."  This,  accompanied 


by  practical  experiments  in  cutting  and  handling  the 
pen,  will  bring  out  details  of  the  utmost  technical 
value.  A  certain  amount  of  legitimate  "  faking  " 
(p.  246),  play  of  the  pen,  and  sleight  of  hand  (p.  311), 
may  be  found,  but,  in  the  main,  the  regular,  natural, 
thick  and  thin  strokes  of  the  pen,  and  the  orderly 
arrangement  of  the  writing,  give  to  a  manuscript 
its  beauty  and  character. 

Then  having  cut  the  nib  rightly,  you  may,  in  a 
sense,  let  the  pen  do  the  writing^  while  you  merely 
follow  the  strokes  of  the  model,  and  you  will,  in 
course  of  time,  have  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  same 
beautiful  writing — in  the  very  manner  of  the  ancient 
scribes — growing  under  your  own  hand. 


Acquiring 
a  Formal 

Hand: 
(3)  Models 


CHAPTER  V 

ACQUIRING  A   FORMAL    HAND:    (4)   PRACTICE 

Practice — Scripts  I.  &  II. — Arranging  &  Ruling  a 
Single  Sheet — Problem  I.  (a  Sheet  of  Prose)— 
Problem  II.  (a  Sheet  of  Poetry) — Spacing  & 
Planning  Manuscript. 

PRACTICE 

IN  acquiring  a  formal  writing  the  penman  should     Acquiring 
have  two  paper  books  constantly  in  hand  :  one  for      a  Formal 
the  study  of  the  forms  of  letters,  the  other  for  both       Hand  : 
the  letters  and  their  arrangement.    The  first  should  (4)  Practice 
contain   large  and  very  carefully  made  writing — 
with  perhaps  only  one  word  to  the  line  ;  the  second 

85 


Acquiring     should   have  smaller  and  quicker  writing,  neatly 
a  Formal      arranged  on  the  pages,  with  four  or  five  words  to 

Hand  :  the  line.  (See  MS.  Books,  Chap.  VI.) 
(4)  Practice  A  broad  nib  is  used  in  preference  to  a  narrow 
one,  so  that  the  characteristics  of  true  pen-work 
are  brought  out  and  the  faults  made  clear.  A  fine, 
light  handwriting  is  often  very  pretty,  but  it  is 
certain  to  mislead  the  novice  in  penmanship  (see 

P-  324); 

Having  acquired  a  formal  hand  the  penman  may 
modify  and  alter  it,  taking  care  that  the  changes 
are  compatible,  and  that  they  do  not  impair  its 
legibility  or  beauty.  Such  letters  as  are  obsolete  he 
replaces  by  legible  forms  akin  to  them  in  feeling, 
and,  the  style  of  the  selected  type  becoming  very 
naturally  and  almost  unconsciously  modified  by 
personal  use,  he  at  length  attains  an  appropriate 
and  modern  Formal-Handwriting.  The  process  of 
"  forming "  a  hand  requires  time  and  practice  :  it 

resembles  the 
passage  of 
"  Copy-book  " 
into  "  Run- 
ning "  hand, 
familiar  to  us 
all  (see  p.  323). 


SCRIPTS  I.  &  II. 


^L^p            %^     M  Having  cut 
^^^ the    nib   of 

FIG.  58.  reed    or    large 

quill    to      the 

exact  width  required  for  the  thick  stroke,  copy  the 
component  strokes  of  the  letter  (X  (Script  I.),  and 
86 


immediately  make  the  complete  letter  :  go  through     Acquiring 

a  Formal 

A       P"P>\  Hand : 

f  I \  (4)  Practice 


z 


I 

CT 


the  whole  alphabet  in  this  way  several  times  (fig. 
58).      Next  join   the  letters  together  (see  p.  73) 


Acquiring     to  form  words — writing  always  between  ruled  lines 
a  Formal      (fig.  59  &  p.  414). 

Hand :  Script  II.  is  similarly  practised  :  the  letters  are 

(4)  Practice    grouped  (p.  82)  to  form  words  (fig.  60). 

Next  make  a  neat  page  of  large  writing,  and, 
if  possible,  write  such  a  page  every  day.  The  more 
definite  and  methodical  practice  is,  the  better. 
"Practising"  anyhow^  on  scraps  of  paper,  does 
more  harm  than  good. 


TO  the  ratkmoL 
anijrnaL  the  same 
art  Is  axxrnrding' 
to  nature  andL  ac 
to  reason 


FIG.  61. 


ARRANGING    &    RULING    A    SINGLE    SHEET 

The  size  of  an  inscription  is  commonly  settled 
before  the  arrangement  of  the  text  is  planned  out, 
being  determined  by  considerations  of  its  future 
position  and  office,  or  by  custom  and  use  (see 
pp.  100-103  &  351). 

88 


The   proportions   of  the  writing,  spacing,  and     Acquiring 
margins  will  likewise  properly  settle  themselves  (see      a  Formal 
pp.  265,  103,  107),  but  where  the  size  of  the  sheet        Hand: 
only  is  fixed,  we  have,  broadly  speaking,  to  decide  (4)  Practice 
between  "  large  "  writing  with  "  small  "  margins 
(fig.  61),  and  "small"  writing  with  "large"  margins 
(fig.  62). 


TO  tke  rational  onirnxiL 
the  same  act  (0  ajxording 
to  nature  ancL  according-"" 
to  reasoiv-M.  AntEmiruis. 


FIG.  62. 

Generally  a  compromise  is  arrived  at  and  the 
proportions  are  more  evenly  balanced  (fig.  63). 

Ruling  (see  also  pp.  258,  99). — The  mode  of  ruling 
marginal  lines  and  writing  lines  is  shown  in  fig.  65. 
The  ruling  should  be  light,  but  firm  and  accurate. 
A  fine  pen,  or  hard  pencil,  or  a  blunt  point  may  be 
used.  Where  the  writing  lines  are  double  (as  for 
round  hands,  p.  304),  it  is  best  to  have  a  double 
ruling  point  (see  fig.  77).  Two  hard  pencils  firmly 


Acquiring  lashed  together  make  a  convenient  tool  for  large 

a  Formal  work  :  the  distance   between  the  [points  is  easily 

Hand:  adjusted  by  means  of  aismall  wedge. 
(4)  Practice 


TO  tKeTrcti0naL 
animal  the  same 
act  is  according-^ 
tx>  nature  and  cue- 
coixliruh  to  reason. 


FIG.  63. 

PROBLEM    I.    (A    SHEET    OF   PROSE) 

To  write  out  the  Pater  noster  (50  words)  in  a  formal 
round-hand  (arranged  in  "  mass  "  of  equal  lines)  on  a 
sheet  of  "foolscap"  (i.e.  17  inches  high  and  13 J  inches 
wide). 

If  the  size  of  the  writing  be  considered  of  the 
first  importance,  a  few  words  are  written  out  in  a 
script  chosen  to  suit  the  subject,  the  space,  &c., 
and  these  are  measured  to  find  the  area  which  the 
whole  text  so  written  would  occupy  (fig.  64).  The 
size  of  the  script  is  then  modified,  if  necessary,  to 
suit  the  available  area. 

90 


Acquiring 

a  Formal 

Hand: 

(4)  Practice 


These  f.  *<m&  take  about  IQSq. 
inches: 
wcm&  of 

a  space  Si  **  tt&*f% 

FIG.  64. 


A  sheer  I7.uidu>s  high  &  131  inches  wufe.(&p) 
£uied  wim  thirteen  ^double)  lines -J"" 
cUstxmce  between 


92 


FIG.  65. 


Pater  noster,  quL  es  in_Ja 
« rf  tv  H 

:  scarictijicetiir  narn£; 
rajnumj 


I 

Acquiring 
Formal 


Practice 


o 


r-.         i 
.  hint  vo 

in-coelo  et  in.  tenxL 


.r 


panem.  nostnirn  ouotLdi-j 
iaiuinrL  da  nobis  hodjue-^J 
jGt  dimilte  nobis  debitn,  1 
iTiostrcL.sicut  etTiosdinulj 

1  * 

timuus  ddbilzmbiiB  nostrlq 
ne  nos  iiudiucas  intEnLi 
.  SecL  liLera  HD9; 


amalD.    A    CD    6    N 


FIG.  66. 


93 


Acquiring          Frequently  it  is  desirable  first  to  determine  the 

a  Formal      sizes  of  the  margins.     These  depend  on  various 

Hand :        considerations  of  the  position  and  office  of  the  MS., 

(4)  Practice    but  more  particularly  on  the  size  of  the  sheet  and 

the  character  of  its  future  environment l  (see  p.  35 1). 

The  top  and  side  margins  may  be  of  equal  width 
— or  the  top  may  be  a  little  less  (see  #,  fig.  70).  Ample 
space  should  be  allowed  for  the  foot  margin,  which 
is  generally  about  twice  the  width  of  the  top,  but 
may  vary  in  different  cases,  according  as  the  text 
falls  short  of  or  encroaches  upon  it  (see  pp.  352,  342). 
For  a  plain  foolscap  sheet :  sides  (each)  2j  inches, 
top  (approx.)  2  inches,  and  foot  (approx.)  4  inches, 
may  be  taken  as  suitable  margins  (fig.  65). 

The  width  of  the  sheet  (13^  inches)  less  the  two 
side  margins  (2j  inches  each)  gives  the  length  of  the 
writing  lines  (13^  —  5  =  8-^  inches).  One  or  two 
such  lines  are  written  experimentally  in  a  suitable 
script  (say,  T5-g-  inch),  and  the  average  number  of 
words  per  line  (four)  is  found. 

The  number  of  words  in  the  complete  text 
(fifty)  will  determine  the  number  of  lines  :  an  extra 

line  or  so  may  be  allowed  for  safety  (^=12^,  say, 
thirteen).     The  spacing  of  these  is  calculated — 

-^  in.  writing  requires  about  £  in.  (close)  spacing  (p.  79) : 

Thirteen  lines  at  £  in.  gives  nf  in.  =depth  of  text  : 

I  if  in.  from  17  in.  leaves  5f  in.2  for  head  and  foot  margins 

— and  if  the  space  is  not  sufficient,  the  writing  is 
made  a  little  smaller.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 

1  For  example,  a  framed  sheet  does   not  require  such  wide 
margins  as  a  similar  sheet  w/zframed. 

2  Really  about  6  inches,  because  the  top  line  of  writing  will 
not  occupy  its  full  |-  inch,  the  unused  part  of  which  adds  to 
the  top  margin  (see  fig.  65). 

94 


marginal  depth  left  over  were  excessive,  the  writing  Acquiring 
might  be  made  a  little  larger  in  order  to  fill  up  the  a  Formal 
space.  Hand : 

(4)  Practice 

PROBLEM  II.  (A  SHEET  OF  POETRY) 

To  write  out  "  He  that  is  down,  needs  fear  no  fall" 
in  a  formal  round-hand  on  a  sheet  of  foolscap  (i.e. 
I  y  inches  high  X  13  J  inches  wide). 

Here  there  are  three  verses  of  four  lines  each  : 
these  with  two  space  lines,  left  between  the  verses, 
give  a  total  of  fourteen  lines  (fig.  67). 

A  poem  has  a  given  number  of  lines  of  various 
lengths,  and  only  very  strong  reason  or  necessity 
can  justify  our  altering  its  proper  form  (e.g.  by 
breaking  up  the  lines)  in  order  to  make  a  mass  of 
equal  lines.  Such  theoretical  margins  as  are  pos- 
sible in  the  treatment  of  prose  can  therefore  seldom 
be  observed  in  writing  out  a  poem,  and,  unless  the 
height  or  the  width  of  the  sheet  can  be  altered,  there 
is  apt  to  be  an  excess  of  margin  in  one  or  the  other 
direction.  When  such  excess  margin  is  obviously 
unavoidable,  no  objection  can  be  made  to  its  appear- 
ance. Poetry  may  conveniently  be  treated  as  "fine 
writing"  (see  p.  263). 

If  the  size  of  the  writing  be  considered  of  the 
first  importance,  several  of  the  longer  lines  (e.g.  the 
first  and  the  eleventh  in  the  poem  given)  are  written 
on  a  piece  of  paper  in  the  size  of  writing  preferred 
(say,  J  inch).  By  laying  this  paper  on  the  given 
sheet,  it  is  seen  whether  such  lines  would  allow  of 
sufficient  side  margins.  (If  they  would  not,  the 
writing  may  be  made  smaller.) 

The  height  of  the  writing  (J  inch)  must  allow  of 
the  full  number  of  lines  (fourteen)  being  properly 

95 


Acquiring  J-J  e  (j^Qj^  \Q  douun,  needs  fear  no 
He  that  is  louu,  no  prixle  : 
He  that  is  humble,  ever  shalL 
Have  Cjod  tr>  be  his  quide . 

lam  canten^uiitK-Ujhcitl  have, 
jLitde  be  it  or  rnujdi. :          I  crave 


"1 

LarcL^  cantEntrnent  stilL  I 
Becaiise  thoa  savest  suich.. 


to  suudv  cuburdLan  ie  , 
That  ^o  art  pilijrinuige  : 
re  little,  andL  hereafter  bliss  , 

beet  ifom  axie  to  axje 

*j 


« 


96  FlG-  67- 


spaced  on  the  sheet  (17  inches)  with  sufficient  head  Acquiring 
and  foot  margins.  This  is  calculated —  a  Formal 

Hand: 

£  in.  writing  requires  approximately  f  in.  spacing  (p.  79)  :       /    \   practice 

Fourteen  lines  at  £  in.  gives  10^  in.  =  depth  of  text  : 

lo£  in.  from  17  in.  leaves  6£  in.  for  head  and  foot  margins 

— and  if  the  space  were  not  sufficient,  the  lines 
might  be  made  a  little  closer,  or  the  writing  a  little 
smaller  (or,  if  necessary,  the  blank  lines  might  be 
left  out  between  the  verses  ;  p.  123). 

The  Sizes  of  the  Margins. — It  will  be  seen  that 
the  above  method  is  primarily  for  settling  a  length 
of  line  which  will  allow  of  sufficient  side  margins. 
The  process  can  be  reversed  ;  if  necessary,  the  side 
margins  are  made  of  a  given  width,  thus  deter- 
mining the  exact  length  of  the  line,  the  size  of 
writing  which  this  line  allows  being  found  experi- 
mentally. 

NOTE. — The  extra  long  lines  may  slightly  en- 
croach on  the  right-hand  margin  :  the  effect  of 
this  is  balanced  by  the  falling  short  of  other  lines. 


SPACING   &    PLANNING    MANUSCRIPT 

In  penmanship  great  nicety  of  spacing  and 
arrangement  is  possible.  The  ascending  and  de- 
scending strokes  may  be  shortened  or  drawn  out, 
the  spaces  between  letters  and  words  may  be 
slightly  increased  or  decreased,  the  lines  may  be 
written  near  or  far  apart,  and  the  letters  may 
be  written  with  a  broader  or  narrower  nib. 

Elaborate  spacing  and  planning,  however,  should 

not    be   attempted    at   first,   and    straightforward, 

undesigned  work  is  often  the  best.     The  student 

is  apt  to  waste  time  writing  out  an  elaborate  draft 

G  97 


Acquiring     in    order   to  ascertain   how  to  space  the    matter, 
a  Formal      This  is  a  mistake,  because  if  written  well,  it  is  a 
Hand :        waste  of  good  writing  on  a  mere  draft ;   if  written 
(4)  Practice    i\\9   it   is   bad  practice.      The   briefer   experiments 
and  calculations  are,  the  better,  though  the  simplest 
problem  always  requires  for  its  solution  a  calcula- 
tion or  process  of  guess  and  trial  (such  as  suggested  in 
the  preceding  pages).     Practice  will  make  people 
very  good  guessers,  and  the  best  work  of  all  is  done 
when  the  worker  guesses  rightly,  and  follows  his 
guesses  with  the  actual  work,  itself  the  trial  and 
proof  of  accuracy. 


CHAPTER  VI 


MANUSCRIPT     BOOKS1 

MS.  Books:  Tools  &  Materials— Methods  &  Propor- 
tions—The Size  &  Shape  of  the  Book— The  Widths 
of  the  Margins — The  Size  of  the  Writing,  &c. — 
Ruling — MS.  Books:  General  Remarks. 

MS.    BOOKS  :    TOOLS   &    MATERIALS 

Manuscript  The  making  of  manuscript  books,  based  on  a  study 
Books  of  the  early  MSS.,  offers  the  best  training  to  the 
scribe  and  illuminator  in  writing,  lettering,  rubricat- 
ing, gilding,  illuminating  initials  and  borders,  and 
miniature  painting,  and  is  the  best  means  of  mas- 
tering the  foundations  of  Book  Typography  and 
Decoration. 

Materials,  &c.  for  MS.  Books  ;  Paper  (see  pp.  51, 
103,  ill,  317);   Vellum  and  Parchment  and  Pounce 

1  MS.  Books  are  further  considered  in  Chap.  XVI. 


(see  pp.  no,  167,  173-5). — Cut  a  small  sheet  the    Manuscript 
size  of  a  page  of  the  book,  and  clip  the  long  edge        Books 
between  two  flat  pieces  of  wood  (holding  it  as  it 
would  be  if  bound).    If  the  page  will  bend  over  and 
stay  down  by  its  own  weight,  it  is  thin  enough 
(R)  fig.  68) ;  if  it  stands  up  (W),  it  is  too  stiff. 


R. 


FIG.  68. 

Cutting  Sheets. — A  frame  or  template  (the  size 
of  the  sheet  desired)  is  used  by  parchment  makers. 
It  is  useful  for  cutting  out  the  sheets  for  a  common 
size  of  parchment  book.  They  are  cut  on  the  end- 
grain  of  wood,  or  on  card  or  glass. 

Folding. — A  Folder •,  as  used  by  bookbinders  (or 
a  bone  paper-knife),  is  useful,  and  also  a  Set  or 
T-Square  for  testing  right  angles,  &c.  The  fold 
and  the  top  edge  of  each  book-sheet  are  commonly 
squared  by  proper  folding. 

Ruling,  &c.  (see  p.  343). — For  marking  distances 
of  lines,  a  carefully  prepared  paper  *  scale  or  pattern 
(p.  25)  and  an  awl  (p.  109),  or  a  "star-wheel" — 

1  The  direct  use  of  a  thick  wood  or  metal  scale  may  lead  to 
inaccuracy. 

99 


Manuscript  having  regular  intervals  between  the  spikes — may 
Books  be  used.  Or  the  ruling — of  the  writing  lines — 
may  be  simplified  by  using  a  stout  card  frame 
(internally  the  size  of  the  text-column)  with  strips 
glued  across  it :  for  a  common  size  of  book  this 
might  be  made  in  stout  tin  or  other  metal.  The 
lines  are  commonly  ruled  with  a  ruling  stylus  (see 
figs.  72,  77),  or  a  sort  of  "rake"  may  be  made  to 
rule  six  lines  at  once. 

Meriting,  Colouring^  Gilding,  Binding  (Chaps.  II., 
X.,  IX.,  XVI.). 

METHODS    &    PROPORTIONS 

Having  to  make  a  manuscript  book  for  a  specific 
purpose,  the  scribe  formulates  in  his  mind  a  general 
plan  of  the  work,  and  decides  approximately  the 
respective  sizes  of  page  and  of  writing  which  seem 
most  suitable. 

He  endeavours  to  fashion  the  book  in  accord 
with  its  use,  and  therefore  allows  the  (most  suitable) 
material,  the  subject-matter  and  the  office  of  the 
book,  and  the  way  in  which  it  will  be  read  and 
handled,  to  determine  as  far  as  is  possible  the  pro- 
.  portions  of  its  parts,  and  its  treatment  as  a  whole. 

Its  material  may  be  vellum,  parchment,  or  paper, 
on  which  a  variety  of  pens,  brushes,  and  other  tools, 
with  inks,  colours,  and  metal  foils,  may  be  employed. 
Its  office  may  be  "  useful "  or  "  ornamental "  ;  its 
contents  may  be  long  or  short,  weighty  or  light, 
and  of  greater  or  less  worth  ;  it  may  be  for  public 
or  for  private  use  ;  and  the  book  may  be  intended 
to  be  placed  on  a  lectern,  to  be  held  in  the  hand, 
or  to  be  carried  in  a  coat  pocket. 

In   following  out  such  natural  indications,  the 

100 


practised  craftsman  relies  greatly   on  his  working     Manuscript 

methods,  preferring  a  direct  mode  of  treatment  to        Books 

one  which  is  too  ingenious  or  subtle.     In  deciding 

a  doubtful  point,  a  common-sense  of  proportion  is 

a  sufficient  guide,  and  one  may  generally  assume 

that  great  works  are  best  "writ  large,"  and  that 

large  letters  look  best  on  an  ample  page,  and  vice 

versa. 

The  main  proportions  which  have  to  be  con- 
sidered are  interdependent,  and  follow  one  another 
in  their  natural  order  (see  p.  256),  thus — 

1 .  The  size  and  shape  of  the  book. 

2.  The  widths  of  the  margins. 

3.  The  size  of  the  writing^  &c. 

And  the  methodical  scribe  makes  his  books  of 
certain  definite  and  regular  sizes,  each  size  having 
corresponding  and  regular  proportions  of  margins 
and  writing.  Though  these  may  greatly  depend 
on  individual  taste  and  experience,  it  is  suggested 
that — like  all  good  designs — they  should  be  allowed 
as  far  as  possible  to  settle  and  arrange  themselves. 

THE    SIZE    &    SHAPE    OF   THE    BOOK 

A  book  is  thought  of  by  the  scribe  chiefly  as  an 
open  book,  and  the  width  and  height  of  its  pages 
are  chosen  with  a  view  to  its  convenient  shape 
and  pleasant  appearance  when  open.  The  most 
economical  sizes  into  which  a  suitable  sheet  of 
paper  can  be  folded  (or  a  skin  of  parchment  can 
be  cut)  may  commonly  be  allowed  to  decide  these 
proportions. 

When  a  printer  is  about  to  print  a  book  he 
chooses  a  sheet  of  paper  which  will  fold  into  a 
suitable  shape  and  size.  If  the  sheet  be  folded 

101 


Manuscript    once  to  form  two  leaves,  the  book  is  called  a  folio 
Books        (fig.  69) ;  folded  again  to  form  a  "  section  "  of  four 


folio  folding       Quarto   folding     Octavo 


a 


•folio (section).      Quarto  section.     Octavo  setfum*. 


jvtio  "vvaiuy' 


"ovtnno' 
FIG.  69. 


leaves — a  quarto  (4*0) ;  or  folded  a  third  time  to 
form   a   section    of  eight  leaves — an  octavo  (Svo).1 

1  The  two,  four,  eight  (or  more)  pages  are  printed  on  both 
sides  of  the  sheet  before  it  is  folded.  Two  or  more  sheets  are 
generally  folded  and  put  together  to  form  a  folio  "section," 

IQ2 


The    book   is  made  up  of  a  number  of  sections     Manuscript 
sewn  on  to  strings  or  tapes  (see  p.  347).  Books 

The  penman  will  find  that,  besides  saving  time 
and  labour,  it  conduces  to  good  work  if  he  keep  to 
certain  regular  sizes  for  "large,"  "medium,"  and 
"  small "  books ;  and,  if  the  ordinary  sheets  of 
paper  which  he  uses  will  fold  in  convenient  folio, 
quarto,  and  octavo  sizes,  it  is  well  that  he  make 
these  his  standards  for  paper  books. 

Paper  being  made  in  sheets  of  various  dimen- 
sions, by  folding  a  large  or  a  small  sheet,  a  "large  " 
or  "  small "  folio — 4to,  8vo — can  be  obtained. 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  length  and  the  width 
of  sheets  of  paper 1  are  very  commonly  about  as  9  is 
to  7.  And  therefore,  when  the  sheet  is  folded  for 
folio  or  octavo,  the  proportions  are  roughly  about 
7  :  4j,  which  are  very  good  proportions  for  a  page 
of  a  book.  It  is  obvious  that  a  narrow  ("  upright ") 
book  is  easier  to  handle  and  more  pleasant  in  appear- 
ance (when  open)  than  an  album  or  "oblong"  shape 
of  book  (b  and  c,  fig.  70). 

THE    WIDTHS   OF   THE    MARGINS 

Margins  are  necessary  in  order  to  isolate  and 
frame  a  text :  thus  they  contribute  to  its  legibility 
and  beauty.  It  is  better  that  they  be  wide  rather 
than  narrow  (see  p.  106,  &  NOTE,  p.  265)  ;  but 
excessively  wide  margins  are  often  neither  convenient 
nor  pleasing  (see  p.  222). 

The  "page"  or  column  of  text  should  be  in 
such  proportion  to  the  page  of  the  book,  and  be 
placed  on  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  adequate 

Such     as    Foolscap     (I7"xi3i"),    Crown    (20"  XI 5"),    Demy 
"  *  20"),  &c. 

103 


Manuscript    margins  on  every  side.     A  narrow  column  of  text 

Books        is  generally  best,  for  short  lines  are  easiest  to  write 

and  to  read,  and  do  not  tire  the  hand,  or  the  eye,  in 

passing  from  one  line  to  the  next.     For  this  reason 

the  text  is  often  divided  into  two  or  more  columns 


Sirt^fe  Shtft  (a)      "UprMt'shaptof'Book  (j>.) 
Inter  prowrtum*  of  WIDE    MARGINS    fcc. 


Shop&f 

Book  (c.> 


umn5:Sce 

also  &?.2d2 
O 


FIG.  70. 


when  the  page  is  wide,  or  the  writing  is  very  small 
in  comparison. 

The  exact  proportion  of  margin  to  text  in  a 

given  page  depends  on  circumstances,  and  is  largely 

a  matter  of  taste  (ex.  fig.  7 1  &  note  2,  £,  p.  256).    But 

just  as  it  is  advantageous  generally  to  keep  to  certain 

104 


Inner 
margin 
§  inch. 


Top  margin   approximately  £  inch   (measured  to  the 
top  of  the  -writing  on  the  frst  line — see  also  Jig.  65). 


FIG.  71. — Diagram  showing  the  ruling  of  a  (Recto')  page  4} 
inches  X  7$  inches  as  for  a  manuscript  book  (allowing  five  or 
six  words  to  the  Writing-line).  There  are  fifteen  Writing- 
lines,  the  Line-space  being  ^  inch. 

The  proportions  of  large  CAPITALS,  shown  above,  are  set 
by  the  Line-space  (footnote,  p.  221). 

The  Foot  margin  is  \\  inch. 

105 


Manuscript  sizes  of  pages,  it  is  well  to  keep  to  certain — corre- 
Books  spending — sizes  of  margins  for  regular  use. 

The  proportions  of  the  margins  to  each  other  follow 
a  sort  of  tradition  (see  fig.  70),  the  foot  margin  (4) 
usually  being  twice  as  wide  as  that  at  the  top  (2), 
the  side  margins  generally  greater  than  the  top  and 
less  than  the  foot.  The  two  pages  of  an  opening 
may  be  viewed  as  one  sheet  having  two  columns  of 
text ;  and  the  two  inner  margins,  which  combine 
to  form  an  interspace,  are  therefore  made  narrow 
(about  ij  each),  so  that  together  they  are  about 
equal  to  one  side  margin  (fig.  70).  These  propor- 
tions (\\  :  2  :  3  14)  approximate  to  the  proportions 
common  in  early  MSS. 

Sufficient  and  proportional  margins  add  greatly 
to  the  usefulness  and  beauty  of  a  book.  That  the 
writers  and  illuminators  used  them  when  books 
were  read  and  valued  in  a  way  we  can  scarcely 
realise  now,  shows  that  such  things  are  not,  as 
some  might  suppose,  a  matter  of  affectation.  Be- 
sides the  natural  fitness  of  the  common  proportions 
commends  them  :  a  deep  foot  margin  is  a  founda- 
tion to  the  whole,  and  gives  a  spare  piece  for  the 
reader  to  hold,1  and  wide  side  margins  rest  the  eyes 
and  keep  the  text  from  "  running  off  the  page  "  at 
the  end  of  each  line  ;  and  (the  two)  narrow  inner 
margins  combine  to  separate  the  pages  sufficiently, 
but  not  too  far,  so  that  they  form  two  "  columns  " 
together,  framed  by  the  outer  margins  of  the  open 
book. 

When  books  are  meant  to  be  bound,  from  TV  inch 
to  -J-  inch  extra  margin  should  be  allowed  all  round 
the  page  for  the  cutting  down  and  binding.  The 

1  In  Oriental  books,  which  are  sometimes  held  by  their  top 
margins,  the  top  is  deepest. 

106 


binding  is  apt  to  encroach  on  the  inner  margins,     Manuscript 
especially    in    vellum    books,  which   do  not   open        Books 
fully;  in  order,  therefore,  that  the  inner  margins 
may  keep  their   proper  width,  an  extra  width  of 
£  to  |  inch  (according  to  the  stiffness  of  the  material) 
is  allowed. 

THE    SIZE    OF   THE    WRITING,    &C. 

The  shape,  size,  and  margins  of  the  page  (already 
settled)  together  determine  the  length  of  the  writing- 
line  (see  fig.  71) ;  and  the  size  of  the  writing  should 
be  such  as  will  allow  a  reasonable  number  of  words 
to  that  line.1 

Eight  or  nine  words  to  the  line  is  a  common 
proportion  in  ordinary  printed  books,  and  may  be 
taken  by  the  scribe  as  his  ordinary  maximum. 
Lines  having  very  many  words  are  difficult  to 
read. 

On  the  other  hand,  lines  of  only  two  or  three 
words  each  are  generally  tiresome,  though  they 
may  be  allowed  in  special  cases  of  fine  writing  (see 
p.  262),  where  it  is  less  necessary  to  economise  space 
or  time,  and  the  effect  of  an  even  mass  is  not 
desired.  But  in  any  case  where  there  is  an  attempt 
to  make  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  text  approxi- 
mately even,  at  least  four  or  five  words  to  the  line 
are  necessary ;  the  scribe  may  therefore  take  four 
words  per  line  as  his  ordinary  minimum. 

We  may  say  generally,  then,  that  an  ordinary 
manuscript  book  should  contain  between  four  and  eight 
words  (or  between  25  and  50  letter-spaces)  to  the  line. 

1  If  the  average  number  of  words  be  previously  fixed — as  in  a 
poem  (see  p.  95) — that  will  practically  determine  the  size  of  the 
writing. 

I07 


Manuscript  The  exact  size  of  the  writing  allowed  in  a  given 
Books  case  may  be  found  by  a  process  of  guess  and  trial, 
but  this  is  seldom  necessary  for  the  practical  scribe 
who  uses  regular  sizes  for  regular  occasions. 

The  line  spacing. — The  size  of  the  letter  deter- 
mines approximately  the  distance  apart  of  the 
writing-lines  (see  pp.  79,  327).  Much  depends  on 
whether  the  ascending  and  descending  letters  are  long 
or  short  (see  fig.  154). 

The  number  of  writing-lines  to  the  page  equals  the 
number  of  times  that  the  line-space  is  contained  in 
the  text-column  (i.e.  the  height  of  the  page  less  the 
top  and  foot  margins) — allowing  for  the  top  line 
not  requiring  a  full  space  (see  fig.  71).  Any  frac- 
tional space  left  over  may  be  added  to  the  foot 
margin,  or,  if  nearly  equal  to  one  line-space,  a  little 
may  be  taken  from  the  margins  to  complete  it. 

The  Large  Capitals  are  commonly  one,  two,  or 
more  of  the  line-spaces  in  height  (fig.  71,  &  p.  128). 

RULING 

Having  folded  and  cut  the  large  sheet  of  paper 
into  small  (book)  sheets  of  the  size  determined  on, 
take  one  of  these  as  a  pattern  and  rule  it  through- 
out as  if  it  were  to  be 
used  in  the  book. 

The  ruling  stylus  has 
a  blunt  point,  which  in- 
dents the  paper,  but  does 
not  scratch  it.  A  stout 
pin  bent  to  a  claw  shape 
and  held  in  a  piece  of 
FIG.  72.  wood  does  very  well 

(fig.  72). 

108 


Under  the  writing  paper  there  should  be  a  "  pad  " 
of  ordinary  paper  (or  blotting  paper). 

The  marginal  lines  are  ruled  from  head  to  foot 
of  each  leaf  (a,  fig.  73).  Besides  being  a  guide  for 
the  writing,  they  give  an  appearance  of  straightness 
and  strength  to  the  written  page.1 


Manuscript 
Books 


FIG.  73. 

The  writing  lines  are  ruled  across,  between  the 
marginal  lines,    their   places 
having    been    indicated    by 
equidistant  dots  (b,  fig.  73). 

A  dozen  or  more  of  the 
small  sheets  of  the  book  are 
piled  together  on  a  board 
with  their  top  edges  exactly 
coinciding,  and  the  pattern 
sheet  is  accurately  placed  on 
the  top  of  the  pile.  The  pile 
of  sheets  may  be  fixed  by  a 
narrow  piece  of  wood  placed 
across  and  screwed  down  (fig. 


74).     (See  Addenda,  p.  25.) 
The  writing  line  dots  are 


FIG.  74- 


1  They  are  often  ruled  double  (see  p.  343),  and  sometimes  the 
top  and  foot  lines  are  ruled  from  edge  to  edge  of  the  sheet. 


Manuscript     pricked  through  all  the  sheets  by  means  of  a  fine 
Books 


FIG.  75. 


FIG.  76. 


awl  or  needle  set  in  a  wooden  handle  (fig.  75). 

The  writing  lines  are  ruled 
as  in  fig.  76  (sometimes  across 
the  narrow  inner  margins). 

For  double  writing  lines  a 
double-ruling  stylus  may  be 
made  of  two  pins  fixed  in  a 
wooden  handle  at  the  exact 
width  of  the  writing  gauge 

(%•  77). 


FIG.  77. 


MS.   BOOKS GENERAL   REMARKS 

Sections  (p.  102). — A  section,  or  "gathering"  com- 
monly consists  of  four  book-sheets,  folded  in  half 
into  eight  leaves  (i.e.  sixteen  pages),  but  three  or 
even  two  sheets  are  sufficient  when  they  are  extra 
thick,  and  five  or  six  may  be  used  when  extra 
thin.  Parchment  sheets  should  have  their  smooth 
sides  so  placed  together  that  each  "opening"  of  the 
book  has  both  its  pages  rough  or  both  smooth  and 
the  pages  are  pounced  after  they  are  ruled  (see  p.  1 74). 

Before  the  writing  is  begun  the  pages  of  the 
section  are  numbered  on  the  inner  marginal  line, 

no 


about  |  inch  or  so  below  the  footline.     This  will     Manuscript 
prevent  mistakes.  Books 

Fly-leaves. — One  or  more  leaves  of  the  first  and 
last  sections  in  a  book  are  left  blank  (besides  the 
extra  sheet  or  section  (p.  346)  which  is  used  in 
the  binding — attached  to  the  cover).  A  book  of 
any  size  or  importance  ought  to  have  at  least 
three  fly-leaves  at  the  beginning,  and  three  or 
four  at  the  end.  These  extra  leaves  protect 
the  manuscript,  and,  in  a  sense,  constitute  mar- 
gins  for  the  whole  body  of  the  text.  They 
may  also  be  used  to  make  thin  books  thicker, 
for  the  sake  of  the  binding.  At  the  end  of 
Service  books,  or  other  books  likely  to  be  of  per- 
manent interest,  additional  fly-leaves  should  be  pro- 
vided for  notes  and  annotations  (see  pp.  344,  346). 

Rough  or  Smooth  Edges. — The  rough  "Deckle" 
edges  of  hand-made  paper  are  inconvenient  in  a 
book  of  any  thickness,  and  should  be  trimmed  off 
after  folding,  though  they  may  be  left  in  the  case 
of  very  thin  books.  The  deckle  edge  should  not 
occur  at  the  top  of  the  page,  as  it  would  there  be 
a  trap  for  dust,  and  because  it  is  important  that 
the  tops  of  pages  should  all  be  level.  The  top 
edge  or  head  of  a  book  is  often  cut  and  gilt  in 
order  to  keep  out  the  dust — this  is  called  "Library 
gilt."  It  is  more  suitable,  however,  that  all  the 
edges  be  gilt. 

The  Top  Margins  throughout  the  book  are  kept 
quite  level.  Any  irregularity  at  the  top  of  a  page 
catches  the  eye  at  once,  while  slight  differences 
at  the  side,  or  considerable  differences  at  the  foot, 
may  occur  without  spoiling  the  appearance  of  the 
margins.  All  measurements  for  marginal  and 
writing  lines,  &c.,  are  therefore  made  from  the 

in 


Manuscript    fold   of  the    book-sheet  and    from    the    top  edge, 
Books        which  is  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  fold. 

Regular  Writing. — In  writing  one  page  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  its  fellow  page,  or  a  similarly 
written  one,  fixed  on  the  desk  beside  it  as  a  pattern. 
This  will  save  the  beginner  from  a  very  common 
error — writing  larger  or  smaller  (which  of  course 
spoils  the  look  of  the  pages). 

Initial  Page. — The  text  of  a  book  commonly 
begins  on  a  recto,  or  right  hand,  page  (see  p.  365). 


CHAPTER   VII 

VERSAL  LETTERS  &  COLOURED  CAPITALS 

Development  of  Versals — General  Analysis  of  Versals — 
Notes  on  Construction  of  Versals — Spacing  &  Ar- 
rangement of  Versals. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF    VERSALS 

Versal        THE  earliest  books  consisted  of  a  number  of  lines 
Letters  &     of  continuous  writing   in   capital  letters.     There 
Coloured      were  seldom  any  divisions  of  the  text — into  para- 
Capitals       graphs,  chapters,  or  the  like — or  even  of  one  word 
from  another  ;  nor  were  important  words  distin- 
guished  by  larger  initials.     The  first  division  of 
paragraphs  was  made  by  a  slight  break  in  the  text 
and  a  mark  ;  later,  the  first  letter  of  the  first  com- 
plete line  of  the  new  paragraph  was  placed  in  the 
margin  and  written  larger.     When  "  small-letters  " 
were  evolved,  capitals  ceased  to  be  used  for  the  body 
of  the  text,  and   became  distinguishing  letters  for 
headings  and  important  words. 
112 


The  capitals  written  at  the  beginnings  of  books, 
chapters,  and  paragraphs  grew  larger  and  more 
ornamental,  and  at  length  were  made  in  colour  and 
decorated  with  pen  flourishes.  Such  letters,  used  to 
mark  the  beginnings  of  verses,  paragraphs,  &c.,  were 
called  "Versals."1 

In  modern  printing  and  ordinary  writing  the  first 
line  of  a  paragraph  is  generally  indented  (ay  fig.  78), 


Versal 

Letters  & 

Coloured 

Capitals 


c* 

FIG.  78. 


but  the  earlier  method  of  employing  a  special  mark 
or  letter  (b  or  c)  is  more  effective,  and  it  might  very 
well  be  used,  even  in  modern  printed  books,  for 
fine  editions.  Affording  a  legitimate  opening  for 
illumination  and  book-ornament,  it  was  (and  is)  the 
natural  method  for  the  penman,  who,  starting  with 
these  useful  capitals,  by  flourishing  them — in  their 

1  Though  Versals  may  generally  be  regarded  as  paragraph 
marking  letters,  it  is  convenient  to  apply  the  term  to  the  Versal 
type  of  letter — e.g.  "a  heading  in  Versal  letters  "  (see  fig.  91). 
H  113 


Versal 
Letters  & 
Coloured 

Capitals 


tnanumielncgatu 


almfcdb  initiator 
ctmtumcffe.rmw 


nitf  amps  •  nnuf  < 


tnnttaCparetfingp 
tzmctnn.fiuo  ouj^n 


own  colour,  or  by 
dotting,  outlining,  or 
ornamenting  them, 
with  a  contrasting 
colour  (see  fig.  79, 
from  an  old  MS.), 
evolved  the  Illumi- 
nated Initial. 

Types  of  J^ersal 
Letters  (examples : 
Plates  IX.,  X.,  XI., 
XII.,  and  figs.  I,  78 
to  94,  150,  161,  165, 
1 66,  189).  — The 
earlier  Versals  had 
very  simple  and 
beautiful  pen  shapes, 
and  are  the  best 
modelsforthemodern 
penman  to  follow. 
After  the  fourteenth 
century  they  were 
often  fattened  and 
vulgarised  and  over- 
done with  ornament. 
In  this  way  they 
not  only  lost  their 
typical  forms ;  but 
their  "  essential 
forms  "  —  as  letters 
derived  from  the 
Roman  Alphabet — 
became  much  dis- 
guised and  confound- 
ed (see  fig.  128). 


GENERAL   ANALYSIS    OF    VERSALS 


i.  THE  LETTERS: 


Versal 
Letters  & 
Coloured 


(Pen  -  made),    Built  -  up,     Orna- 
mental  (coloured),    "Gothic"        ^r] 
Capitals   (Round   and    Square         Capitals 
forms). 


i.  HORIZONTALS— 
STRAIGHT: 

CURBED: 


Medium — commonly  the  width  of 
the  nib. 

Thin — the  thin  stroke  of  the  pen. 


3.  PERPENDICULARS:       Built-up,    slightly  curved  in  on 

either  side. 


4.   SERIFS: 


Long,  thin,  slightly  curved. 


5.  LONG  STEMS: 


Various  (see  p.  1 19,  &  figs.  84,  90). 


6.  SPACING— 

Letters  &  Words: 
Lines  : 


7.  ARRANGEMENT: 


Various  (see  figs.  89,  92,  166). 
Usually  one  or  more  of  the  line 
spaces  apart  (see  pp.  126,  128). 

Singly:  set  in  text  or  margin,  or 

part  in  both  (fig.  86). 
Grouped:  after  large  initials  (fig. 

92). 
In  Lines  :  wide  or  close,  often  one 

word  to  the  line  (fig.  89). 

Stem  •width :  commonly  two  or 
three  widths-of-nib  across  thin- 
nest part  (fig.  165). 

O  height:  commonly  one,  two,  or 
more  of  the  line-spaces. 


9.   COMPONENT  PARTS :  A  has  approx.io strokes  &  filling. 

BO 
»  99  99 

C  7 

and  so  on  (see  fig.  81). 


8.   MEASUREMENTS: 


Versal 

Letters  & 

Coloured 

Capitals 


MMNOPD 
'<Wfo£ 


Xl*Xl  f*  cLwL~X\  1 1 

J[  K.CCI  WY  y  o/r  rruide  to  matzfi 
For  fzicstmius  see  plates  ix,x,xi,&  xfl 

116  FIG.  80. 


TXsmall 

j/A\ 


Versal 
Letters  & 
Coloured 

Capitals 


y^V/^OTvv     if  f  ^/^  |i  -r^ 

(DIM  3  lo 

(7  ompcnait  parts  or  pen  strokes 


First— ' 


FIG.  81. 


ii 


Versal 

Letters  & 

Coloured 

Capitals 


NOTES    ON    CONSTRUCTION    OF    VERSALS 

(See  figs.  80,  81,  85,  165) 

Versal  Letters  are  properly  built-up  (p.  291)  with 
true  pen-strokes  (£,  fig.  81).  Drawn  or  painted, 
they  acquire  a  different  character  (p.  292).  Their 
office  being  to  mark  important  parts  of  the  text, 
they  are  generally  distinguished  by  colour  and 
freedom  of  form — tending  to  curves  and  flourishes. 

The  pen  has  an  extra  long  slit  (-J-  inch  to  £  inch), 
and  the  writing-board  may  be  lowered  (see  fig.  46,  b) 
to  permit  of  the  thick,  liquid  colour  running  out 
freely.  The  nib  is  of  the  ordinary  shape  (but 
not  too  oblique),  and  generally  rather  less  in  width 
than  the  nib  used  for  the  accompanying  text  (ay 
fig.  8 1). 

The  outlining  strokes  are  quickly  written  and 
immediately  filled  in,  each  letter  being  loaded  well 
with  the  colour,  which  thereafter  dries  evenly, 
with  a  slightly  raised  "flat"  surface.  The  liquid 
colour  should  be  fairly  thick  (see  colour,  p.  176). 

"  Gothic  lettering "  is  a  term  used  for  "  Black- 
letter  "  and  related  types,  as  distinguished  from 
"  Roman "  types.  "  Gothic "  capitals  tend  to 
roundness,  the  small-letters  to  angularity,  but  in 
each  the  abrupt  change  from  thick  to  thin  strokes, 
and  the  resulting  contrast  of  stroke,  are  character- 
istics— the  result  of  pen  work.1  In  Versals  this 
contrast  is  marked  ;  the  ends  of  the  thinner  strokes 
spread  (see  Addenda,  p.  25,  &  cross-bar  of  A,  fig.  71), 
and  the  heavy  parts  are  crossed  by  thin  serifs.  Versals 
may  retain  their  pen  character  and  yet  approach 

1  In  "Roman"  letters  the  thicks  and  thins  are  not  neces- 
sarily strongly  marked,  though  their  pen-forms  have  often  a 
natural  "  Gothic  "  tendency. 

118 


the  "  Roman  Letter  "  (p.  294),  or  be  changed  into 

the    ornate    "  Lombardic "    (p.    34).      They   are 

capable   of  great   variety,   and    the    "round"    or 

"square"  D,  E,  H,  M,  and  W 

may  be  used  at  pleasure. 

I  The  Stems   curve  in  slightly  on 

£.  either  side.  When  they  are  very 
tall  the  mid  part  may  be  quite 
straight,  imperceptibly  curving  out 
towards  the  ends  (£,  fig.  82).  This 
gives  an  effect  of  curvature  through- 
out the  length,  while  keeping  the 
letter  graceful  and  straight.  The 
head  of  a  stem  (especially  of  an 
ascender)  should  be  slightly  wider 
than  the  foot  (fig.  83).  This  applies 

•  generally    to    every    sort    of    built-up 

•  capitals. 

\ 


FIG.  83. 


The  stem  width  may  be   nearly 
FIG.  82.          the  same   in    Versals   of  different 
heights  (a,  fig.  84) :  generally  the 
letters  tend  to  become  more  slender  in  proportion  as 
the  letters  grow  taller  (b\     Very  large  Versals  (or 
initials)  are  often  made  with  a  hollow  stem  to  avoid 
a  heavy  appearance  (L,  fig.  84). 

119 


Versal 

Letters  & 

Coloured 

Capitals 


Versal 

Letters  & 

Coloured 

Capitals 


FIG.  84 


The  Serifs  are  long  and  slightly  curved  in  orna- 
mental forms  (fig.  79) :  shorter,  and  nearly  straight 
in  stiffer  forms  (fig.  166).  In  many  cases  the  serifs 
appear  to  have  been  written  first,  the  stems  being 
added  between  them  (/,  fig.  81)  —  in  old  MSS. 
the  stems  often  show  ragged  ends  crossing  the 
serifs.  Sometimes  the  serif  appears  to  have  been 
added  to  the  stem  in  two  pieces,  half  on  either  side 
springing  from  the  corners  of  the  stem  (g).  The 
safest  way  seems  to  be  the  complete  finishing  stroke 
added  to,  and  forming  sharp  angles  with,  the  stem  (h). 

Arms  or  Branches. — Width  of  nib  at  start,  and 
built-up  at  free  end.  (Pen  horizontal,  figs,  81,  165). 

120 


The  Bows  or  Curves  of  Fersals  (and  of  built-up        Versal 
letters  generally)  are  begun  with  the  inside  stroke     Letters  & 

Coloured 
Capitals 


fiat 
curve 


111 

Cmstructum    of  "lows"  (a..) 
wrmaL 


OO 

(Complete)  A  way  of- 

P<-K  Another          O 
"-"fr. 

FIG.  85. 

—  a  rather  flat  curve  :  and  finished  with  the  outer 
stroke  —  a  pronounced  curve  (#,  fig.  85).    This  pre- 

121 


Versal        serves  the  continuity  of  the  interior  curve,  together 

Letters  &      with  the  clean  contrast  of  the  thick  and  thin  strokes 

Coloured      (see  inside  shapes,  p.  253).     The  normal  form  may  be 

Capitals       flattened  or  curved  a  little  (£),  but  exaggeration  in 

either  direction  produces  a  degraded  form.      Part 

round  letters,  as  D,  P,  and  (J,  may  be  begun  with 

a  complete  inner  oval,  or  a  nearly  completed  O  (to 
which  the  stem  is  added) ;  this  preserves  their 
interior  symmetry  (c). 

The  beauty  and  quality  of  Versal  letters  depends 
very  much  on  their  freedom  ;  touching-up  or  trim- 
ming after  they  are  made  is  apt  to  spoil  them ;  and 
when  good  letters  are  made  with  a  free  hand, 
minute  roughnesses,  which  are  due  to  their  quick 
construction,  may  be  regarded  as  shewing  a  good 
rather  than  a  bad  form  of  care-less  workmanship 
(see  (c)  fig.  164). 

SPACING   &   ARRANGEMENT    OF    VERSALS 

(Allowing  for  the  special  treatment  of  Versals  called  for  by 
the  extreme  freedom  and  elasticity  of  their  pen  forms,  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  apply  generally  to  the  spacing  and  arrangement  of 
coloured  capitals  in  -written  pages) 

Versah  accompanying  Small  Text  are  generally 
dropped  below  the  writing-line,  so  that  their  tops 
are  level  with  the  tops  of  the  small  letters  (fig.  86). 

Sizes  of  Versah. — Letters  which  are  of  the  same 
importance  —  i.e.  serve  the  same  purpose  —  are 
usually  of  like  size  and  form  throughout ;  and 
the  more  important  a  letter,  the  more  it  tends  to  be 
elaborated  and  decorated  (see  figs.  90,  92). 

Special  words  in  Text  marked  by  Versah. — Where 
coloured  capitals  are  used  throughout  the  text  (fig. 
92),  the  colours  are  usually  varied  (pp.  134,  185). 

122 


Line  beginnings  marked  by  Versa  Is. — Where  every 
line  on  a  page  begins  with  a  coloured  capital,  the 
majority  of  the  forms  are  kept  rather  plain  (see  (5) 
p.  136).  They  may  be  effectively  treated  as  a  band 
of  simple  or  variegated  colour  (p.  136).  This  is  a 
common  treatment  for  a  list  of  names  or  a  poem  ; 
sometimes,  especially  if  there  are  many  lines,  simple- 
written  capitals  (p.  297)  may  be  used  instead  of 
Versals. 

Verses  or  Paragraphs  may  be  marked  by  Versals 
set  in  the  text  (# ),  or  part  in  margin,  part  in  text  (b)y 
or  wholly  in  the  margin  (c,  fig.  86).  The  marginal 
capital  is  the  simplest,  and  it  has  the  advantage 
of  leaving  the  page  of  text  entire  ;  it  may,  how- 
ever, sometimes  be  desirable  to  break  the  continuity 
by  an  inset  capital,  especially  in  cases  of  closely 
written  text,  or  of  stanzas  not  spaced  apart  (see 
p.  138). 

The  first  word  of  a  paragraph,  which  is  begun 
with  a  Versal,  is  often  completed  in  simple- 
written  capitals  of  the  same  colour  as  the  text 
(«,  fig-.  86)- 

Various  ways  of  marking  Paragraphs. — (a)  The 
paragraph  marks  C>  ^>  preferably  coloured,  may 
be  used  instead  of  (or  even  with)  Versals  (comp. 
fig.  95) ;  (b)  by  one  word  or  line  (or  several  words 
or  lines)  of  simple-written  (or  built-up)  capitals  in 
black  or  colour  (see  fig.  93) ;  (c)  by  some  suitable 
ornament  (see  fig.  87) ;  (d)  in  many  cases  it  is 
well  to  have  spaces  between  the  paragraphs  or 
verses  (see  p.  138). 

Line  -  Finishings  at  the  ends  of  Verses,  &c. 
(pp.  205,  425),  may  be  made  with  the  Versal  pens 
and  colours. 


Versal 
Letters  & 
Coloured 

Capitals 


I23 


jVcrsal  set  in 


vcrsals  are  buxje :! 
say  three  Line  = 
Spaces  of  more  in  height 

set  pardy  in  toed 
bl 


are  convcnei 


• 
Versale  in  nutmn'. 

'ftea  used  uhcn,  me 
vocals  are  9mall: 
uitxble  for  corn-: 


iruunercois  capitals! 

•          c. 


124 


FIG.  86. 


tkeendofoneparairraph. 
THE  NEXT  PARACTAPH 
may  be  marked  by  a  line— 
of  vvrtttcn  capitate  in  black 
or  colour(on  or 


Or  a  band  of  suitibler-' 
(usually  pen-nude)  orn& 
merit  ma  be 


FIG.  87. 

T<?  mark  Chapters  (or  even  Books),  extra  large 
Versals  (fig.  88)  may  be  used,  in  lieu  of  more  elabor- 
ate initials.  Smaller  Versals  may  be  grouped  round 
about,  beside  or  inside  initials  (p.  208  &  fig.  92). 

Headings  and  Pages  in  Capitals  (see  also  pp.  128, 
132). — Each  line  of  capitals  is  generally  kept  uni- 
form throughout  its  length,1  though  different  lines 
vary  in  size  and  colour  (see  fig.  89).  If  it  be 
possible  it  is  well  to  keep  the  individual  word  entire 


1  The  mediseval  scribes  often  made  the  first  line  of  a  chapter 
or  book  in  uniform  capitals  (excepting  the  initial  letter).  The 
succeeding  line  generally  was  smaller,  and  of  a  different  colour 
and  type — even  when  a  divided  word  was  carried  over  into  it. 

125 


Versal        and  to  let  the  heading  or  page  contain  the  complete 
Letters  &     initial  phrase  or  sentence  (see  fig.  91). 
Coloured          Generally  the  greater  the  number  of  capitals  the 
Capitals      plainer  their  forms  are  kept,  and   the  closer  their 
spacing.     It  is  best  to  keep  to  the  regular  method 
of  spacing  the  lines  of  Versah  one  of  the  writing-line 
spaces  (or  more]  apart  —  though  in  special  cases  the 
Versals  may  be  independent  of  the  writing-lines. 


books  are  marked  \y 
an  initial  letter.  A, 
Urq£  versal  ~  tHnee  or 
mcnxline  -spaas' 
is  cjuite  etftctxve  &  s 


FIG.  88. 

Spacing  Out.  —  Coloured  letters  and  ornaments  are 
usually  put  in  after  the  plain  MS.  has  been  written. 
A  very  little  practice  enables  the  scribe  accurately 
to  guess  the  amount  of  space  which  he  should  leave 
for  the  Versals,  &c.,  whether  it  is  designed  to  have 
several  lines  of  them,  or  a  single  letter  only  on  the 
page.  A  few  pencil  marks  may  be  used  to  settle  a 
doubtful  point,  but  an  elaborate  sketching  or  setting 
out  in  pencil  spoils  the  freedom  of  the  work. 


126 


CHAPTER  VIII 

BLACK    &    RED 

Rubricating — Initial  Pages  or  Title  Pages — Prefaces  & 
Notes  in  Colour — Pages  with  Coloured  Headings — 
Page  or  Column  Heading  &  Initial — Versals  in 
Column  or  Marginal  Bands  —  Stanzas  or  Verses 
marked  by  Versals — Music  with  Red  Staves — 
Tail- Pieces,  Colophons,  &c. — Rubricating  :  General 
Remarks. 

RUBRICATING 

"  Red,  either  in  the  form  of  a  pigment  or  fluid  ink,  is  of  very          Black 
ancient  and  common  use.      It  is  seen  on  the  early  Egyptian         &  Red 
papyri  ;  and  it  appears  in  the  earliest  extant  •vellum  MSS., 
either  in   titles   or   the  first   lines   of  columns   or    chapters. 
The  Greek  term  'was  /zeAavtov  KOKKLVOV  ;  Latin  minium,1 
rubrica."— (Thompson's  "  G.  &  L .  Palaeography,"  p.  5 1 .) 

Rubricating,  or  the  adding  of  Red,  or  other  coloured, 
letters,  line-finishings,  or  signs,  to  a  MS.  or  Book, 
in  which  the  main  body  of  the  text  is  already 
completed  in  black,  constitutes  in  itself  a  very  use- 
ful and  effective  form  of  decoration.  It  is,  moreover, 
a  connecting  link  between  plain  writing  and  illumi- 
nation proper  ;  and  we  may  safely  assume  that  the 
artists  who  made  the  beautiful  illuminations  of  the 
Middle  Ages  were  trained  as  scribes  and  rubricatorsr 

INITIAL   PAGES   OR   TITLE    PAGES 

Fig.  89  represents  an  Initial  Page  in  Red  Capitals. 
(The  same  arrangement  may  of  course  be  used 

1  Minium  =  red-lead,  used  in  early  times  for  "  rubrics  "  and 
drawings,  hence  is  derived  the  word  "Miniature" 

127 


Black  with  a  variety  of  colours  and  with  gold  :  see  Note  (4) 
&  Red  below).  Such  a  page  is,  as  it  were,  an  "  illumina- 
tion "  to  a II  the  pages,  following  it  in  black  text. 

Title  Pages  came  into  fashion  after  printing  was 
introduced.  Early  MSS.  commonly  began  with 
the  opening  words  written  in  large,  decorated  capitals, 
the  title  sometimes  being  written  quite  small,  near 
the  top  of  the  page :  other  details  were  commonly 
put  in  the  colophon  in  early  books  (see  p.  142). 

When  the  title  is  more  important,  in  a  literary 
sense,  than  the  opening  sentence,  it  may  be  well 
to  follow  the  modern  fashion.  But  when  there  is 
a  finely  worded  opening  sentence  —  perhaps  the 
key-note  to  the  rest  of  the  text — while  the  title  is 
merely  for  reference,  it  seems  reasonable  to  magnify 
and  illuminate  the  actual  beginning  of  the  book 
rather  than  the  mere  name  of  it  (see  p.  365). 

NOTE  (i).  — In  fig.  89  the  title  —  (JES U 
CHRISTI)  Evangelium  Secundum  Joannem  —  is 
written  in  as  a  decoration  of  the  initial  word  ; 
the  old  form  "IHV  XPf"  is  used  for  "Jesu 
Christi "  (these  letters,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  here 
employed  to  lighten  the  large  capitals,  see  p.  208). 

(2)  Where   IN    is  an  initial   word,   to    enforce 
narrow  initial  I,  both  letters  may  be  magnified. 

(3)  The  scale  of  the  lettering  corresponds  with 
that  of  the  ruled  lines  (these  do  not  show  in  the 
figure) :  the  letters  and  the  interlinear  spaces  are  each 
one  line  high  ;  the  initial  word  is  four  lines  high. 
Such  a  mode  of  spacing  is  very  simple  and  effective, 
and  will   save   the   rubricator   much   unnecessary 
trouble  and  fruitless  planning  (see  footnote,  p.  221). 

(4)  Other  Colour  Schemes. — All  Burnished  Gold  (or 
with  Title  in  red) ;  or  IN  gold,  with  smaller  capitals 
Red  (or  in  Blue  and  Red  lines  alternately — or  Blue, 
Red,  Green,  Red:  see  p.  181). 

128 


Black 
&Red 


CIPIO 
6  RAT" 

VERBUM 


FIG.  89. 
I 


129 


Black  PREFACES   &    NOTES   IN    COLOUR 

&  Red  _. 

Fig.  90  represents  a  preface,  or  note,  written  in 

red. 

It  was  a  frequent  practice  in  old  MSS.,  where 
there  were  prefaces,  or  prologues,  or  notes — not 
actually  part  of  the  text — to  keep  these  distinct  by 
writing  them  in  red.  A  somewhat  similar  usage 
still  exists  in  modern  typography,  where  such  parts 
are  sometimes  distinguished  by  Italic  type  (see  p. 

315). 

The  distinction  of  a  preface,  "  rubric,"  or  note 
from  the  main  body  of  the  text  makes  a  book  more 
readable,  and,  as  a  page  of  red  (or  blue)  writing  is 
very  pleasant  and  effective,  we  may  certainly  take 
advantage  of  such  a  reasonable  excuse  for  intro- 
ducing it.  Entire  books  have  been  written  in  red,, 
but  this  is  a  questionable  mode,  as  too  much  red 
text  would  tire  the  eye. 

NOTE  (i). — The  writing  is  founded  on  the  tenth- 
century  English  hand  given  in  Plate  VIII. 

(2)  The  flourishes  on  s  and  e  fill  gaps  at  the 
ends  of  the  lines,  and  the  spread  out  A  M  E  N 
fills  the  last  line. 

(3)  The  Headline  is  in  simple  written  capitals. 

(4)  The  effect  of  colour  contrast  of  the  built-up 
Ps  with  the  simple  writing  :  the  solid  Ps  (though 
really  the  same  colour)  appear  to  be  a  much  deeper 
red  than  the  writing,  which  is  lightened  by  the  in- 
termingled white  of  the  paper. 

(5)  Other  Colour  Schemes. — The  Versah  (Pp)  in 
burnished  gold  ;  the  rest  in  red  or  blue. 


130 


XTER  FOSTER       S 

»         »  « «        * . 

CSUV 


nomen 
re 

vo- 
lunus  tia,,  Statt  in 


nostrum  <ju£ 
ti4ixnum  J"       *  * 


Hodk. 

tu>Ks  ddnta 

$icut  ct  nos  dimif  - 


nostris.  6t  ne  np5  i 
ducas  in  teatation- 
cm.  SolUberano^a 
tt\3ilo.  \  CO  6 


FIG.  90. 

131 


Black  PAGES    WITH    COLOURED    HEADINGS 

Fig.  91  represents  the  first  page  of  a  chapter  (or 
a  book)  with  a  Heading  in  red  capitals. 

It  is  convenient  in  practice  clearly  to  distinguish 
between  the  two  modes  of  beginning — 
(a)  with  an  illuminated  Initial-Prf^  (see  fig.  89),  or, 
(h)  with  an  illuminated  Heading  (see  fig.  91). 
The   former  may  be  treated  as  though  it  were  a 
decoration  to  the  whole  book.      The  latter  is  in- 
tended more  particularly  to  decorate  its  own  page. 

The  Heading  should  therefore  be  proportionate 
to  the  body  of  the  text  below  it.  About  one-third 
Heading  and  two-thirds  text  make  a  good  pro- 
portion. A  "  Heading "  occupying  half,  or  more 
than  half,  of  the  page  is  apt  to  look  disproportionate, 
and  it  would  be  preferable  to  this  to  have  a  com- 
plete, or  nearly  complete,1  Page  of  coloured  capitals. 

NOTE  (i). — The  full  effect  of  black  and  red  is 
obtained  by  an  arrangement  of  the  two  colours  in 
marked  contrast. 

(2)  The  lines  are  used  as  a  scale  for  the  Head- 
ing, the  red  capitals  and  interspaces  each  being  one 
line  high.     If  a  Heading  so  spaced  appear  too  close 
to  the  first  line  of  black  writing,  another  line  space 
may  be  left. 

(3)  The   round    Es   are    used    to   fill    out    the 
second  line,  and  the  square,  narrow  E  to  relieve 
the  crowded  third  line. 

(4)  Other   Colour   Schemes. — The  entire  heading, 
or  the  letters  W,  H,  B,  O,  R,  in  burnished  gold  ; 
or  the  whole  variegated  (see  p.  180). 

1  An  illuminated  Page  will  allow  of  a  few  lines  of  black  text 
at    the   foot  (an   arrangement  very  common  in   the  elaborate 
Initial  Pages  of  the  fifteenth  century),  but  these  should  be  quite 
subordinate  to  the  "  Illumination." 
132 


WHO  HATH 


OUR  REPORT 

and  to  whom  HxtK  die  arm  of 
die  Lord  been  revealed  ?  porKe 
qrew  up  before  1urrt  as  a  tender 
aix>ot  out  of  a  clry 
itnnrt  nor- 


comeliness;  <3C  wKcn  we  see  Kim, 


tkerc  is  no  beau^  ttat 

im.  He  was  despise^  d 
op  rricn;  a  inan  of  scrr- 


TOWS, 


&  as  one  from  wKommen  Hide, 
tkcir  face  He  was  despised, 
\ve  esteemed  Kim  rurtr: 

FIG.  91. 


Black 
&Red 


133 


Black  PAGE    OR   COLUMN    HEADING    &    INITIAL 

&  Red 

Fig.  92  represents  the  first  page  of  a  book  or 
chapter  in  two  columns,  beginning  with  a  rather 
ornate  Heading,  in  which  the  Initial  is  made  the 
principal  feature,  and  having  coloured  Versals  and 
line-finishings  throughout  the  text. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  get  a  good  effect  in  this  way 
than  by  means  of  a  marked  colour  contrast  (see 
p.  144),  or  variegated  colour,  and  gold  (see  Note  7). 

NOTE  (i). — The  lines  bounding  the  text  would 
naturally  be  indented,  or  pale  (not  black  as  in  the 
block),  and  ruled  from  head  to  foot  of  the  page 
(see  Note  (2)  on  the  next  figure). 

(2)  The   red  ornamental  line-finishings  (see  p. 
205)  would  be  more  effective  if  variegated. 

(3)  The  Versals  in  the  text  are  made  about  a 
line  high,  but  are  dropped  below  the  line  (p.  122). 

(4)  The    Versals    in    the    Heading   are    made 
one  line  high,  with  one-line  spacing — between  O 
and  D  increased  to  two  lines   (partly  filled   by  a 
flourish  from  the  D),  in  order  to  fit  the  U,  O,  and  D 
in  evenly  beside  the  Initial. 

(5)  The  Initial  Q  should  project  slightly  up  and 
out — beyond  the  bounding  lines — to  mark  the  top, 
left  corner  more  strongly  (see.  footnote,  p.  211). 

(6)  All  the  rubricating  on  this  page  is  done  with 
the  same  pen  (see  pp.  205,  218). 

(7)  Other    Colour    Schemes.       «  QUOD  FUIT 
AB    INITIO,"    the   filigree    ornament    and    the 
V  V  in  burnished  gold  (or  the  Q  and  VV  in 
gold),  the  rest  of  the  Versals  and  line-finishings  in 
Red  and  Blue,  or  Red  and  Green,  or  Red,  Blue,  and 
Green  (see  pp.  181,  185). 

134 


O! 


AB 
fNTITlO, 

-    +    *  '•*    *     | 
OD  AUDIVICDUS 
UOD  VIDIMUS 
LlS  J40STR1S 


HOSTKA6   COI" 


ct  apparuit 

>UOD  vulimuG  crj 
JCtvunus,  annuncix 
mus  vobis,  ur  ct  vos  I 
Societitem  hibeatis  no 
cum^  ct  socictxs  ru>5 
tni  sit  cum  patre/et-  ' 
cumpiUo  CJU6J65U 


Thaxc 

nt  ^oulcuxs,  et| 
vcatnun  sit 


XNMUMCIAT1O 
ovum  aaxcUvvmus  ib 


aruvancxraus 


Vtfci 
:,ct 

jtanutr  ct  ajiruuixurrui 
vttun  aeternam; 


cr 


Sunt  ulbie 
1  duccrurius 


-miae 


Socctaitcm 
cunx  co  ct  in. 


mcntimur^  ct  y  crvOt 


cm  rum 


Black 
&Red 


FIG.  92. 


135 


Black  VERSALS   IN   COLUMN    OR   MARGINAL   BANDS 

Fig.  93  represents  two  columns  of  black  text, 
consisting  of  short  verses,  &c.,  which  are  marked 
by  coloured  capitals  —  forming  bands  of  colour — 
in  the  margins. 

NOTE  (i). — The  coloured  capitals  in  the  figure 
are  made  rather  larger  than  usual,  to  enforce  the 
effect  of  the  two  lines  of  red  and  mark  their  con- 
trast with  the  columns  of  black  text.  In  practice, 
however,  they  would  be  better  and  more  distinct 
if  rather  smaller. 

(2)  The  lines  bounding  the  text  would  natur- 
ally be  faint,  or  grooved  (p.  343)  ;  but,  ruled  from 
head   to   foot   of  the    page,   they  would   be  suffi- 
ciently apparent  to  add  materially  to  the  general 
effect  of  orderly  arrangement.     (Lines  are  printed 
here  to  show  clearly  the  way  the  two  columns  are 
ruled  and  to  suggest  this  effect,  though  the  process 
block  necessarily  gives  a  false  impression  in  making 
them  appear  too  short  and  too  heavy). 

(3)  Extra  width  between  the  columns  (and  also  in 
the  margin)  may  be  allowed  for  the  coloured  capitals 
(compare  fig.  92). 

(4)  Words  in  simple  written  capitals  are  used  to 
mark  slight  divisions,  or  changes  of  sense,  in  the 
text. 

(5)  A  stiff  Versal  of  a  rather  "  Roman  "  type  is 
used,  partly  because  of  the  number  of  the  capitals 
(see  p.  126). 

(6)  Other    Colour  Schemes. — The  larger  capitals 
might   be   in   burnished   gold,  the  rest  in  red   (or 
in  red,  blue,  and  green)  ;  or  all  might  be  in   red, 
blue,  and  green. 

136 


SURELY  THER 
IS  A  MINE 
S   I    L  V  E   PU 
And  a  place  fcrgpli 
which  they  refine! 
Iron  is  taCen  outr 
of  the  earth, 
And  brass  Is  nvol  t 
ten  out  of  the  stone 
Til' an settedian  end 

And  seardketh  out 
to  the  furthest-" 
bound 


S  pORTUEARTl- 

outof  it  cometh 

bread: 

nd  underneath  if; 

is  turned  up  as  it 

were  by  five . 
fhe  stones  thereof 
'  are  the  place  of-' 

sapphires^ 

And  tt  hath  dustr" 
of  gold. 
THAT  PATH  WO 
BIRD  OP  PREY 
KNOWETH, 


Black 
&Red 


The  Stones  of  thu:k"XJeither  hath  the 
H;»rkn£A<;  and  of  I  *  ^1  falcons  eye  seen  It: 


H 


the  Shadow  of  dath.JT"he  proud  beasts  j 
E  BREAKETH    |      •  Kave  not  trodden  it 

a  shaft  away  '^J01*  luth  the  fierce 
m  wKere  men    L  ^  lion  passed  thi 

E  PUTTETH 


H 


Kls  Uand  upon  [ 
the 


Sojourn; 

*TT  hey  are  fSrg>tten 
I   of  die  foot 

oassethby;  

Tlxey  hanj  afar  from1  •  tKe  mountains 
men,  tlvey  Swincr 


to  and  fro 


th£  n>ots. 
E'CUTTETHovrt: 


FIG.  93- 


Black  STANZAS    OR    VERSES    MARKED    BY    VERSALS 

&  Red  ,.,. 

rig.  94  represents  a  poem  in  two  verses  which 

are  distinguished  by  interspaces  and  by  coloured 
capitals — a  brief  introductory  line  also  being  in 
colour.  (It  is  supposed  that  the  poem  occurs 
in  a  book — mainly  in  prose — written  in  Roman 
small-letters.) 

It  is  generally  best  to  distinguish  the  verses  of 
poems  by  one-line  interspaces.  When  this  is  done, 
coloured  initials  are  not  so  necessary,  and  their 
value  become  chiefly  decorative  (see  123). 

NOTE  (i). — The  writing  is  founded  on  "Italic" 
(see  Plate  XXL),  and  (it  is  supposed  that)  it  would 
be  used  here  wherever  the  songs  occurred ;  firstly, 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  rest  of  the  text,  and 
secondly,  to  keep  the  lines  of  the  poem  entire — 
Italics  occupying  less  room  than  ordinary,  round  Small- 
Letters  (see  p.  315). 

(2)  The  story  opens  with  the  first  line,  which 
may  in  this  case  be  regarded  either  as  a  Title  or  as 
a  prefatory  note  in  red. 

(3)  The  two  red  capitals  are  made  of  a  rather 
"  Roman  "  type  to  match  the  Italic  (and  the  small 
Roman    text    of  the    book).      The   difference    in 
height  made  between  the  W  and  the  S  is  intended 
to   balance  the  difference  in   width,  and   to    give 
them  an  appearance  of  equal  weight.      This  may 
be  permitted  where  there  are  only  a  few  capitals  ; 
where  there  are  many,  their  heights  are  generally 
kept  more  uniform. 

(4)  Another  Colour  Scheme. — W  and  S  would  look 
better  in  burnished  gold. 


138 


'Tis  of  Aucassin  and  TvlicoUtt 

VV/HO  would  list  to  thtoood  laf 
W  C  ladnts&ofthc  catrtiveerey  ? 

T  is  how  two  Voun 
J     c 

h*uca$$vn  and  IN 

Of  the  pains  the 
A  nd  tht  Sorrows  he  outwore, 
for  the  qvodness  and  theornctj 
Of  his  L°ve,Sojrurof(ace. 

SWEE  Ttht  son<r,thc  story  sweet, 
There  is  vio  man  hear^en^  if, 
"M0  man  living  ntatfi  die  Sun, 
S^  (nifaveaneb,  so  firedone  , 
jick^and  wofid^  worn  and  Sab, 
if  heated,  but  is  dad 
so  sweet. 


/ 

FIG.  94.  139 


Black  MUSIC    WITH    RED    STAVES 

.  .        .  .  . 

Fig.  95  is  a  reproduction,  in  facsimile,  showing 

quarter  of  a  page  of  a  folio  Service  Book  (probably 
French,  early  sixteenth  century).  The  page  consists 
of  two  columns  of  ten  staves  each,  and  is  headed 
C  In  vigi  (lia),  natiuitatis  dnl.  The  book  is  printed 
on  vellum  in  red  and  black  ;  the  columns  of  music 
have  faint  red  bounding  lines  ruled  by  hand  (not 
shown  in  the  figure). 

The  red  stave  is  very  effective,  and  it  was  com- 
monly used  in  early  MSS.  and  printed  books. 
There  appears  to  be  some  doubt,  however,  as  to 
its  practical  value,  and  I  have  been  advised  that  it 
is  not  so  legible  as  the  black  line  stave,  and  also 
that,  in  Church  Service  Booh  (see  p.  345),  in  order 
to  make  »n  absolutely  clear  distinction,  red  should 
be  reserved  entirely  for  the  rubrics. 

The  "  plain-song  "  chant,  with  its  four-line  stave, 
has  a  simpler  and  finer  appearance  than  the  more 
modern  and  elaborate  five-lined  stave  and  tailed 
notes.  The  latter,  however,  may  yet  be  treated 
very  effectively. 

NOTE  I. — The  mark  C  and  the  capitals  £&,  315, 
and  £D  were  blotted — it  can  scarcely  be  called 
"  painted " — with  yellow.  Yellow  or  red  were 
often  used  in  this  way  to  mark  the  small  black 
capitals  in  printed  books  (p.  428,  &  comp.  p.  302). 
It  is  a  questionable  method.  (These  blots  have 
been  removed  from  the  figure — except,  by  an  over- 
sight, in  the  case  of  £&). 

(2)  Other  Colour  Schemes. — (a)  The  title,  or  (b) 
the  text  and  the  notes,  might  be  in  burnished  gold 
(the  other  parts  in  either  case  remaining  in  red 
and  black). 

140 


Black 
&Red 


atttem  Ojerwft  faimon. 


mon  autcm   genutt 


ae  ra  ab«  015003  atitcm 


mitt  opctt)     cy  rtttf). 

•  •     J3"  "dirE 

£>bet()     autcrn  gmutt 

FIG.  95-  141 


Black  TAIL-PIECES,    COLOPHONS,    &C. 

&  Red  .,.          ,  j    -r-  -1      • 

r  ig.    90    represents   a   coloured     1  ail  -  piece   or 

decorative  finish  at  the  end  of  a  book  (or  chapter). 

The  Colophon  (see  p.  128  &  figs.  13,  191),  generally 
distinguished  from  the  text  by  a  smaller  or  different 
hand,  and — especially  in  early  printed  books — by 
colour  or  other  decorative  treatment,  occurs  at  the 
end  of  a  book,  where  it  is  the  traditional  right  of 
the  penman  and  the  printer  to  add  a  statement  or 
a  symbolical  device.  The  Name  (of  craftsman  and 
assistants),  Time,  and  Place  are  commonly  stated — 
preferably  quite  simply  —  e.g.  "  This  book,  written 
out  by  me,  A.B.,  in  LONDON,  was  finished  on  the 
T^ist  day  of  DECEMBER  1900."  Any  reasonable 
matter  of  interest  concerning  the  text,  the  materials, 
methods,  lettering,  or  ornament,  and  an  account  of  the 
number  of  leaves  and  their  size,  &c.,  may  be  added. 
But  the  craftsman,  properly  and  modestly  keeping 
his  name  off  the  title-page,  is  at  liberty  to  exercise 
his  right,  marking  the  end  of,  and  signing  his  work 
in  any  way  he  chooses — even  in  a  speech  or  a 
sentiment — provided  the  form  of  the  colophon  be 
unobtrusive  and  its  language  natural.  Printer's 
devices  or  book-marks,  consisting  of  symbols,  mono- 
grams, &c.  (p.  362),  were  likewise  used. 

The  opportunity  generally  provided  by  the  final 

margin,  and   the  natural  wish   to  close  the   book 

with  a  fitting  ornament,  also  led  to  the  use  of  colour 

or  capitals  in  the  concluding  lines  ;  and  sometimes 

the  "  tail "  of  the  text  was  given  a  triangular  form, 

the  lines  becoming  shorter  and  shorter 

till  they  ended  in  a  single 

word,  or  even  one 

letter. 

142 


But  I  have  not  finished 
the  five  acts^  but  only' 
three  of  them" — -  Thou, 
safest  well,  but  in  lifer 
the  three  acts  ire  ther 
whole  dramx;  lor  whit 
shall  be  a  complete-  dra- 
mx  is  dettrrruncb  by  Kim 
-who  was  once  the  cause 
of  its  composition,  and 
now  of  its  dissolution: 
but  thou,  art  the  cause 
of  neither — — ' 
Depart  then  sattstua, 
for  he  also  who  rc^ 
leases  thee  is  satisfteo. 


FIG.  96. 

us 


Black  RUBRICATING  :    GENERAL    REMARKS 

Contrast  of  Red  and  Black. — The  most  effective 
arrangement  of  red  lettering  with  black  text 
involves  a  sharp  contrast,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  con- 
centration of  the  red  in  a  line  or  mass  (see  figs.  91, 
93,  and  96,  where  the  red  lettering  is  massed  at 
the  head,  side,  and  foot  of  the  black).  Too  many 
red  capitals  scattered  through  a  page  lose  their 
effect,  and  appear  as  though  they  were  brown-red 
rather  than  bright  red  (see  pp.  134,  185).  Printed 
title-pages,  &c.,  may  be  seen  with  promiscuous  lines 
of  black  and  red,  in  which  the  fine  effects  obtainable 
by  the  use  of  bright  colour  is  dispersed  and  lost ; 
while  the  same,  or  even  a  less,  amount  of  red, 
massed  in  one  or  two  places  in  the  page,  would 
show  to  great  advantage. 

Notes  in  Red  in  Margins. — Red  lettering,  and 
particularly  small  red  writing,  may  be  used  freely 
in  the  margins  ;  being  much  lighter  than  black, 
it  appears  there  as  a  marginal  decoration,  not  inter- 
fering with  the  regular  look  of  the  page.  Indeed, 
red  may  be  used  more  freely,  and  I  think  its  decora- 
tive effect  is  greater,  in  the  form  of  rubrics,  than  in 
any  other  simple  form  of  ornament  (see  Red  in 
Church  Service  Books  (pp.  140,  345)  and  Red  sub- 
stituted for  Italics  (p.  315)). 

Paragraph  and  other  Marks. — Various  symbols, 
numerals,  and  marks  (such  as  |^"  If  C  *  t  J  § 
*J«  ^  1$ — Addenda,  p.  25)  may  be  made  in  red. 

Red  Lines. — Lines  made  to  divide,  or  outline, 
pages  ("  rules  "  or  "  rule  borders  ")  should  be  spar- 
ingly used,  and  then  rather  in  black  than  in  red 
(see  p.  364).  If  in  red,  particularly  between  lines 
of  writing,  these  should  be  "ruled  feint"  with 
diluted  colour. 

144 


Red  for  Ornaments. — Red  may  be  used  pretty  Black 
freely  with  other  colours  (blue,  green,  and  gold),  &  Red 
but  by  itself  more  sparingly. 

OTHER  COLOURS.— The  foregoing  remarks 
refer  mainly  to  contrasts  of  black  and  red,  but 
apply,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  black  with  any  bright 
colour  (or  gold)  (see  "  Other  Co/our  Schemes "  given 
above,  and  p.  180). 


CHAPTER   IX 

LAYING    &    BURNISHING    GOLD 

Tools  &  Materials — Laying  the  Ground — Laying  the 
Gold-Leaf — Burnishing  the  Gold  —  Remedying 
Faults  in  Gilding — Gold  Writing — Other  Methods 
&  Recipes  for  Gilding — Appendix  on  Gilding  (by 
Graily  ffewitt). 

TOOLS   &    MATERIALS 

THESE  should  be  kept  together  in  a  convenient  box,  Laying  & 
as  it  is  important  that  the  process  should  not  be  Burnishing 
interrupted  by  a  search  for  a  missing  tool.  Gold 

Tools  and  Jbfaterials.  Summary  of  Procitt, 

HARD  LEAD  PENCIL.  For  drawing  forms  if  necessary. 

POUNCE.  For   preparing   surface: 

"  pouncing." 
«  SIZE  "  OR  RAISING  PRE-    For  raising  and  backing  leaf. 

PARATION. 

SMALL  SAUCER.  For  mixing  size  in. 

NEEDLE  SET  IN  HANDLE.    For  bursting  bubbles,  &c. 
QUILL  PEN.  For  "  laying  "  the  size. 

KNIFE.  For  trimming  size,  &c. 

GOLD-LEAF.  For  gilding. 

K  145 


Laving  &  Tools  and  Materials.  Summary  of  Process. 

Burnishing     SCISSORS.  For  cutting  gold-leaf. 

QOJ(J  BURNISHING-SLAB.  For  backing  the  parchment  or 

paper  while  under  pressure. 

BREATHING-TUBE.  For  damping  size. 

RUBBING-PAPER.  For  pressing  leaf  on  to  size. 

CHALK    OR    SOFT    LEAD  For  marking  form  on  rubbing- 

PENCIL.  paper. 

BURNISHER,   TOOTH  For  (i)  pressing  down,  and  (2) 

SHAPE.  burnishing  gold-leaf. 

FEATHER  (BRUSH,  &c.).  For  dusting  off  the  pounce. 

BRUSH.  For  brushing  off  waste  leaf. 

(HARD  INDIARUBBER. )  (For  removing  gold  from  parch- 
ment.) 

(POWDER   GOLD  &  FINE  (For    "mending"   in    certain 
BRUSH.)  cases.) 

LAYING   THE    GROUND 

Drawing  the  Form. — Elaborate  letters  or  orna- 
ments may  be  drawn  with  a  hard  pencil,  which  will 
leave  slight  indentations  in  the  surface  of  the  page 
when  the  marks  of  the  lead  have  been  removed 
with  indiarubber.  In  the  case  of  free  lettering  or 
gold  writing,  however,  the  forms  should  be  made 
directly  with  the  pen  (see  pp.  148,  164). 

Preparing  the  Surface :  Pouncing. — The  surface  is 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  prepared  with  powdered 
pumice  stone,  or  other  suitable  "  pounce  "  (see  pp. 
167,  174).  This  being  rubbed  well  into  the  actual 
part  which  is  to  take  the  size  absorbs  grease  and 
slightly  roughens1  the  surface.  The  surrounding 
parts  are  also  pounced  to  prevent  the  gold-leaf  from 
sticking  to  them  later. 

Composition    of  the  Ground  or   Size.     The   chief 

1  The  surface  of  horny  or  greasy  parchment  may  be  slightly 
roughened  with  a  pen-knife  till  little  hairs  are  raised  which 
will  hold  the  size,  care  being  taken  that  this  roughening  does 
not  extend  beyond  the  actual  parts  which  are  to  be  covered 
with  size.  (Oxgall:  see  footnote,  p.  175.) 
146 


substance    in    a   "  size "  or  raising  preparation   is     Laying  & 
generally  some   kind  of  earthy  matter,  to  give  it     Burnishing 
body.      Other  substances,  having   toughness   and         Gold 
stickiness,  are  used  to  bind  the  earthy  matter  and 
prevent  its  breaking  when  the  page  is  turned  over 
or  bent,  and  also  to  make  the  size  adhere  to  the 
page  and  the  gold-leaf  stick  to  the  size.     Yellow 
or  red  colouring  matter  is  often  added.     A  preser- 
vative, such  as  oil  of  cloves — in  a  minute  quantity 
— may  be  present  :  this  will  permit  of  the  size  being 
kept  in  a  semi-liquid  condition,  in  a  closed  jar. 

The  following  recipe  was  given  to  me  by  Mr. 
G.  Loumyer  : — 

"  Chalk  (Whiting). 
Oxide  of  Iron — \  grain. 
Glue  (Carpenter's) — 4  grains. 
Gum  Arabic — 2  grains. 
Water — 50  grains. 

Melt  the  gum  and  the  glue  together  in  the  water, 
then  add  the  oxide  of  iron,  and  lastly  put  in  enough 
chalk  to  make  the  whole  a  rather  liquid  paste.  Apply 
to  the  parchment^  which  you  have  previously  well 
rubbed  with  whiting,  and,  when  dry,  apply  the  gold- 
leaf  with  alcohol" 

Mixing  the  Size  with  Water. — A  little  of  the 
size,  taken  from  the  jar  (see  above),  is  put  in  the 
saucer  with  a  few  drops  of  water  to  soak  for  an 
hour  or  two.  It  is  then  rubbed  down  with  a 
finger-tip,  care  being  taken  to  mix  it  very  thor- 
oughly and  to  avoid  making  bubbles.  The  right 
consistency  is  judged  by  experience — it  should  be 
thick  rather  than  thin. 

It  is  essential  that  all  the  ingredients  be  present 
in  their  right  proportions,  and  the  mixture  should 
be  stirred  every  now  and  then.  Otherwise  the  earthy 

147 


Laying  &      matter  settles  down,  and  the  sticky  parts,  remaining 

Burnishing     in  solution  above,  are  liable  to  be  used  up.     What 

Gold         is  left  in  the  saucer  after  use  is  apt  to  be  deficient 

in  its  sticky  parts,  and  it  is  best  thrown   away. 

Take  out  of  the  jar  only  what  is  required  at  the 

time,  and  mix  a  fresh  lot  the  next  time. 

Bubbles,  formed  in  the  mixture,  may  be  burst  by  a 
needle,  or  by  adding  a  minute  drop  of  oil  of  cloves. 

Methods  of  Laying  the  Size. — The  parchment  or 
paper  is  laid  flat  on  a  table  ;  if  on  a  slope,  the  size 
would  run  down  and  lie  unevenly.  A  quill  pen 
with  a  finely  cut  nib  and  an  extra  long  slit  (about 
|  inch)  is  used  for  laying  the  size.  It  is  filled 
pretty  full  by  means  of  a  quill  or  a  brush  ;  if  by  the 
latter,  special  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  bubbles. 

Experiments  should  be  made  in  various  methods. 

I.  Perhaps  the  best   way  of  laying  the  size,  so 
that  it  may  set  properly  and  that  the  burnish  may 
retain  its  brilliance,  is  to  put  on  a  thin  coat  with 
a  pen — in  the  direct  manner  in  which  coloured 
Versals  are  made  (q.v.} — and  afterwards  add  two 
or  three  thin    coats,   allowing   each    coat    to   dry 
thoroughly.      This  requires  considerable  patience 
and  skill,  as  it  takes  a  long  time,  and  there  is  a 
danger,  in    adding   several  coats,   of  spoiling   the 
form  by  going  over  the  edges. 

II.  The    simplest    method    for    ordinary    gold 
letters  is  to  make  them  with  one  extra  thick  coat1 
of  size,  exactly  like  coloured  Versals — first  a  natural 
pen  outline,  and  then  the  filling   in  (see  fig.  81). 
This    requires   some    practice   to   do  well,  as  the 
thicker  size  is  more  difficult  to  manage  than  the 

1  As  this  is  usually  allowed  to  dry  for  twenty-four  hours,  make 
sure,  before  laying  the  size,  that  you  will  be  able  to  lay  the 
gold-leaf  on  it  at  or  near  the  same  time  on  the  next  day. 
148 


colour.1  Very  narrow  parts — such  as  the  thin 
strokes — are  apt  to  be  deficient  in  size,  and  there- 
fore, while  they  are  still  wet,  the  pen — held  nearly 
vertical  with  the  nib  in  contact  with  the  surface  of 
the  size — is  moved  slowly  along  it  until  the  stroke 
has  received  sufficient  size  and  is  properly  filled 
out. 

III.  A  method  that  may  be  found  more  con- 
venient for  heavy  forms,  is  to  hold  the  pen  across 
the  form  to  be  gilded  (which  has  previously  been 
marked  on  the  parchment)  with  its  nib  resting  on 
the  further  outline  (a,  fig.  97).  The  nib  being 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


FIG.  97. 

moved  along  that  line,  by  contact  with  the  parch- 
ment restrains  the  size  from  passing  beyond  it, 
while  allowing  it  to  flow  out  freely  behind  and 
below  (#,  2).  The  opposite  side  is  similarly  treated, 
and,  if  the  form  be  narrow,  the  size  as  it  flows 
out  blends  with  that  already  laid  (b}.  The  ends  of 
the  form  are  finished  in  like  manner  (c). 

i  Should  a  drop  fall  on  the  page  it  can  be  removed  quickly 
with  the  knife,  but  it  is  safer  to  allow  it  to  dry  and  then  to 
pick  it  off  carefully.  Size  which  has  flowed  beyond  the  bounds 
of  the  form  may  be  trimmed  away  when  it  has  set. 

I49 


Laying  &          The  angle  of  the  pen  with  the  parchment  is  less 
Burnishing     for  a  wider  form  (£,  fig.  98). 
Gold 


4  FIG.  98. 

As  a  general  rule  the  size  should  stand  pretty 
high  when  wet  ;  it  shrinks  in  drying,  and,  if  it  forms 
too  thin  a  coat,  it  will  neither  hold  the  gold-leaf  fast 
nor  burnish  well.  While  the  size  is  still  wet  it  is 
easy  to  raise  it  to  any  height  desired  by  running 
more  size  into  the  form  in  the  manner  described 
above.  It  is  well,  however,  not  to  raise  the  size 
too  high,  as  burnished  gold  too  much  raised  looks 
out  of  place  on  a  page  and  has  a  heavy  and  vulgar 
appearance  (p.  1 84).  Very  high  raising  also  does  not 
dry  so  well,  and  when  dry  it  is  more  liable  to  chip. 

The  work  of  laying  the  size  should  be  carried 
out  as  quickly  as  possible.  If  one  part  of  the  form 
is  left  any  appreciable  time  before  the  remaining 
parts  are  sized,  the  first  part  will  begin  to  settle 
and  dry,  and  the  different  layings  will  not  blend  or 
lie  evenly.  Though  the  size  is  thick  and  awkward 
to  use  at  first,  a  little  skill  will  coax  it  quickly  and 
evenly  out  of  the  pen,  and  it  will  all  blend  and  dry 
with  an  even  surface. 

When  it  is  sized,  put  the  work  away  to  dry  in  a 

150 


drawer  or  safe  place  where  it  cannot  be  smudged      Laying  & 
or  get  dusty.  Burnishing 

Drying  the  Size. — The  average  time  allowed  is  Gold 
twenty-four  hours,  but  it  varies  with  the  weather 
and  the  temperature  ;  damp  weather  may  make  a 
longer  time  necessary,  and  dry  weather  or  heat  will 
shorten  the  time.  The  thickness  of  the  raising 
affects  the  time  very  much  ;  a  very  thin  coat  will 
dry  in  an  hour  or  two,  while  an  extra  thick  coat 
may  take  several  days.  Size  not  dry  enough  is  too 
sticky  to  burnish  ;  if  too  dry,  it  is  so  absorbent  that 
it  sucks  up  all  the  moisture  which  is  breathed  on 
it.  To  ensure  the  gold-leaf's  sticking  thoroughly, 
it  is  safer  on  the  whole  to  gild  the  size  while  it  is  still 
slightly  damp,  and  delay  the  burnishing  till  it  is  drier. 

The  time  to  allow  and  the  right  condition  of  the 
size  for  gilding  can  only  be  accurately  judged  by 
experience. 

LAYING    THE    GOLD-LEAF 

NOTE. — In  illuminated  MSS.,  In  order  to  avoid 
risk  of  injury  to  the  gold  it  may  be  laid  last  of  all 
(see  pp.  170—1).  The  inexperienced  illuminator^  how- 
ever,  may  find  it  better  to  follow  the  easier  method  of 
finishing  the  gold  before  applying  the  colours. 

The  process  of  gold-laying  must  be  carried  out 
steadily  and  quickly ;  all  the  necessary  tools,  &c., 
should  be  ready  to  hand  (see  p.  145). 

The  Gold-Leaf. — This  is  sold  in  books  of  twenty- 
five  leaves.  The  ordinary  leaf,  about  3^  inches 
square,  consisting  of  gold  and  alloy,  is  said  to  be 
beaten  out  to  less  than  — !^  inch  in  thickness.  As 
gold  sticks  readily  to  gold,  especially  when  very  thin 
and  liable  to  wrinkle  and  fold  over,  or  to  paper,  red 


Laying  &      bole  or  ochre  is  scattered  between  the  leaves  of 
Burnishing     the  ordinary  book.     This  powder  will  come  off  on 
Gold         the  work  and  give  it  an  ugly  colour,  when  burnish- 
ing, unless  it  is  dusted  off  very  carefully. 

It  is  better  to  get  gold  "double"  (or  "quadruple") 
the  ordinary  thickness,  specially  prepared  for  fine 
work  such  as  illuminating,  quite  pure,  and  put  up 
in  white  books  (without  bole). 

Cutting  the  Leaf. — With  the  scissors,  which  must 
be  quite  clean  and  sharp  (or  else  the  gold  will  stick 
to  them  and  tear),  cut  a  whole  or  half  leaf  of  gold, 
together  with  the  paper  leaf  on  which  it  lies,  out 
of  the  book. 

The   gold   is   cut  on   one  paper  (fig.  99)   (not 


FIG.  99. 

between  papers,  for  then  it  would  stick  and  tear), 
and  the  cut  edges  of  the  paper  and  the  gold  stick 
together  slightly.  If  the  edge  of  the  gold  is  any- 
where loose  and  apt  to  flap  about,  it  and  the  corre- 
sponding paper  edge  can  be  nicked  together  with 
the  scissors  (fig.  100).  The  gold-leaf  being  lightly 
held  to  the  paper  in  this  way  is  easily  handled. 

A  piece  of  gold,  about  £  inch  larger  all  round  than 
the  form  to  be  gilded,  is  cut  from  the  leaf  in  the 
manner  described  above  (a,  b,  fig.  100).  Except  in 
the  case  of  a  very  large  form,  it  is  not  worth  trying 

152 


to  save  gold  by  cutting  it  out  in  the  same  shape. 

Square,  oblong,  and   triangular  shaped   pieces  are 

suitable     for     ordinary 

use  ;  these  are  laid  in  a 

convenient   place  —  the 

edge  of  a   book  cover 

will  do  very  well  (fig. 

101)  —  ready     to     be 

picked  up  at  the  right 

moment. 

The  burnishing  slab 
(a  flat  piece  of  vul- 
canite, celluloid,  or 
metal)  is  placed  under 
the  page  to  give  it  a 
hard,  firm  back,  which 
will  make  the  pushing 
and  rubbing  of  the  FIG.  100. 

burnisher  effective. 

Preparing  the  Size.  —  If  the  size  has  dried  rough, 
it  may  be  lightly  scraped  with  the  pen-knife  — 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


FIG.  101. 


removing  as  little  as  possible  of  the  surface,  in 
which  the  essential  stickiness  frequently  seems  to 
be  concentrated. 

153 


Laying  &          Ordinarily  a  form  should  not  require  trimming, 

Burnishing     though   if  its   edges  have  accidental  roughnesses, 

Gold         these  may  be  trimmed  a  little  with  the  pen-knife. 

Damping  the  Size. — The  breathing  tube  is  about 
\  inch  (or  less)  in  diameter,  and  6  inches  or  more 
in  length  ;  it  may  be  made  of  paper  or  cane.  One 
end  of  the  tube  being  lightly  held  between  the  lips, 
the  other  is  moved  about  over  the  size,  which  is 
gently  breathed  upon  (fig.  102).  The  breath  con- 


placed  on 
rth€  size  immedi- 
ately after  breathing 

FIG.  102. 

densing  on  the  surface  of  the  size,  moistens  it  and 
renders  it  sticky.  The  amount  of  moistening  re- 
quired depends  on  the  condition  of  the  size. 

Care  has  to  be  taken  that  the  breath  does  not 
condense  in  the  tube  and  drcp  on  to  the  work. 

Laying  the  Gold-Leaf. — Immediately  that  the  size 
has  been  sufficiently  breathed  upon,  the  piece  of 
paper  with  gold-leaf  adhering  (held  ready  in  the  right 

154 


hand)  is  placed  upon  it,  gold-leaf  downwards,  care 
being  taken  to  place  it  steadily  down,  and  not  drag 
it  across  the  size  (fig.  103). 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


FIG.  103. 

The  Rubbing  Paper — a  convenient  piece  of  thin 
but  tough  paper  (held  ready  in  the  left  hand) — is 
immediately  laid  above  the  gold-leaf  paper,  and  is 
then  rubbed  over  firmly  with  the  finger-tip,  in 
order  at  once  to  attach  the  leaf  to  the  size  (fig. 
104).  It  is  then  quickly  rubbed  with  the  soft  pencil 


^  *  he  burnisher  is  yi^wn  ^ 
ftcre  -held  in  the  ndtt  hand-  ready  far  die 
next apem&cm.  , See  Fi4s.io6.&  107. 


op 


FIG.  104. 


155 


Laying  &     or  chalk  till  the  raised  form  underneath  is  indicated 
Burnishing     on  the  surface  of  the  paper  (fig.  105). 

Gold  These    two   operations    may    be    combined    by 

having  a  little  blue  chalk  either  on  the  finger-tip 
or  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  rubbing  paper. 

Round  the  outline  of  this  form  the  point  of  the 
burnisher *  is  worked,  pressing  the  gold-leaf  firmly 
— through  both  the  papers — against  the  size,  in  the 
angle  formed    by  the  size 
and    the    surface    of    the 
parchment  (fig.  106). 

The  fore  part  of  the 
burnisher  is  then  passed 
rapidly  all  over  the  rub- 
bing paper  with  a  firm 
pressure  (fig.  107). 

The  rubbing  paper  and 
the  other  paper  are  picked 
off,  and  an  experienced 
eye  can  usually  tell  if  the 
gold  is  sticking  properly  by 
a  peculiar,  smooth  appear- 
ance which  it  then  has. 
FIG.  105.  Several  Letters  or  Forms 

which   are   close   together 

may  be  gilded  simultaneously — with  one  piece  of 
gold-leaf — as  if  they  were  one  complex  form.  This 
saves  time,  but  if  too  many  forms  are  gilded  to- 
gether, some  of  them  are  liable  to  be  less  thoroughly 
and  effectually  treated. 

Small  Scattered  Forms  (dots,  &c.). — For  these  the 
gold-leaf  may  be  cut  into  a  sufficient  number  of 
little  pieces,  which  are  allowed  to  fall  (gold  side 
downwards)  on  a  sheet  placed  to  receive  them. 


156 


1  A  finer  metal  or  ivory  point  may  also  be  used. 


They  are  picked  up  separately  by  means  of  a  needle 
stuck  into  their  backing-paper. 

Additional  Coats  of  Gold-Leaf. — A  second  leaf  of 
gold  may  be  laid  on  immediately  on  the  top  of  the 
first ;  this  will  ensure  richness  and  facilitate  bur- 
nishing. Additional  leaves  may  be  laid  after  bur- 
nishing, but,  unless  the  first  gilding  is  absolutely 
clean,  there  is  a  risk  of  the  second  leaf  peeling  off 
when  re-burnished. 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


*       jpressirur  the  ovLi  leaf  tn& 


arufle  (vrm&L  fy  the  size  &  parchment. 


dia^rcurraf 
above 


FIG.  106. 


157 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


N<?te:  The  ru&lnng--  paper 
15  hdd  steadily  by  the 
lift  hand  and  net  <d- 
Ijnved  to  shin: 
theti 


IS  fc«/wr  pressed  en 
th&sizt-  See.  *~' 
106. 


FIG.  107. 


BURNISHING    THE    GOLD 

The  Burnisher. — A  tooth-shaped  agate  burnisher 
(fig.  1 08)  is  commonly  used. 

The  point  is  used  for  pushing  the  leaf  into  angles 
and  for  burnishing  angles  (a). 

The  fore-part  for  general  burnishing  (£). 

The  bend  for  cross-burnishing  and  for  angles  (c). 

The  side  for  very  gentle  and  light  burnishing  (d). 

The  burnisher  is  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  to 
ensure  this  it  is  frequently  rubbed  on  a  cloth. 

Dusting  off  the  Pounce. — The  edge  of  the  parch- 
ment may  be  tapped  smartly  on  the  desk  to  shake 
off  the  pounce,  and  a  feather  or  a  soft  handkerchief 
may  be  used,  care  being  taken  not  to  brush  the 
pounce  over  the  gold. 

158 


Brushing  off  Waste  Leaf. — The  superfluous  gold 
round  the  edge  of  the  gilded  form  may  be  lightly 
brushed  off  with  the  tip  of  the  brush.  This  may 
be  done  after  or  before 
the  burnishing  —  pre- 
ferably after(see  p.  1 70). 

Any  gold  which  may 
have  stuck  to  the  sur- 
rounding parchment,  in 
spite  of  the  pouncing, 
may  be  removed  with 
the  knife  or  with  the 
hard  indiarubber  point, 
great  care  being  taken 
not  to  touch  the  gilded 
size. 

Burnishing  the  Gold. 
— The  gold-leaf  may 
be  burnished  immedi- 
ately after  laying  when 
the  size  is  very  dry, 
but  it  is  safer  to  wait 
for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  —  or  longer,  if 
the  size  is  at  all  damp 
(see  Drying,?.  151). 

The  slab  is  again  put 
under  the  work,  and 
the  burnishing  is  be- 
gun very  gently  and 
cautiously  :  should  the  burnisher  stick  in  the  very 
least,  it  is  instantly  stopped  (or  else  the  gold  will 
be  scratched  off),  examined,  and  cleaned. 

The  first  strokes  of  the  burnisher  are  generally 
carried  all  over  the  work,  very  lightly  and  with  a 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


FIG.  108. 


Laying  &     circular  movement  (fig.  109),  till  the  gold  begins  to 
Burnishing    feel  smooth^  and  the  matt  surface  gives  place  to  a 
Gold         dull  polish. 

As  the  gold  gets  smoother  a  little  more  pressure 
is  used,  and  the  burnisher  is  moved  in  straight  lines 
in  every  direction  across  the  gold  (fig.  no).  At 


FIG.  109. 


FIG.  no. 


this  point  the  gold  should  have  a  peculiar  and  agree- 
able feeling  of  smoothness  under  the  burnisher,  an 
unmistakable  sign  that  all  is  going  well. 

A  rapid  light  polish  with  the  bend  of  the  bur- 
nisher across  a  gold  stem  will  give  a  very  good  finish 

(',  fig-  i°8). 

Properly  burnished  gold  in  a  right  light  is  at  first 
as  bright  as  a  mirror,  and  in  some  lights  may  look 

1 60 


quite  dark  by  reason  of  its  smoothness.  A  piece 
of  white  paper  may  be  held  at  such  an  angle  that 
the  white  light  from  it  is  reflected  by  the  gold  ; 
this  will  show  the  quality  of  the  burnish,  and  also 
show  up  any  brown  spots  which  the  leaf  may  have 
failed  to  cover.  It  is  helpful,  moreover,  during 
the  actual  process  of  burnishing  to  have  a  reflecting 
paper  folded  and  standing  beside  the  work  (fig. 
in). 


FIG.  in. 

At  first  the  size  under  the  burnished  gold  is  not 
thoroughly  hardened,  and  great  care  should  be  taken 
of  it  (not  to  breathe  on  nor  finger  the  gold  in  any 
way,  nor  allow  it  to  lie  about  and  get  dusty).  It  is 
best  to  put  it  away  safely  in  a  drawer  for  a  week  or 
two. 

After  a  week  or  fortnight,  when  the  size  has 
set  a  little  more,  it  may  be  very  gently  re-burnished, 
and  this  may  be  done  again  at  the  end  of  another 
L  161 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


Laying  &  fortnight.  This  final  burnishing,  when  the  size  is 
Burnishing  nearly  hard,  will  give  it  a  very  lasting  polish.  It  is 
Gold  well,  however,  to  take  every  care  of  burnished  gold, 
and  to  secure  it  from  risk  of  damage  as  soon  as  may 
be.  Illuminated  miniatures  were  often  protected 
by  a  piece  of  silk  between  the  leaves — and  this 
should  be  done  now,  in  the  case  of  fine  work. 
That  a  bound  volume  protects  the  burnished  gold 
within  it  is  proved  by  the  large  number  of  MSS.  in 
which  the  gold,  laid  and  burnished  500  years  ago, 
is  in  perfect  and  brilliant  preservation. 


REMEDYING    FAULTS    IN    GILDING 

To  lay  and  burnish  gold  satisfactorily  requires 
considerable  experience.  Careful  practice  with  a 
good  "  size  "  will  overcome  the  chief  difficulties  : 
these,  and  their  probable  causes,  are  here  sum- 
marised : — 


To 


take  the  Size  stick  to  the 
Surface, 


Probablt  Causes  of  Size  not  sticking 
to  Parchment  or  Paper, 


Clean  and  pounce  thoroughly : 
roughen  if  necessary  (pp. 
146,  167). 


Procure  or  make  a  proper  com- 
position, mix  thoroughly 
always,  and  stir  frequently 
when  in  use.  If  composition 
is  at  fault,  add — 

a.  Sticky  matter. 

b.  Toughening  matter 
(pp.  147,  166,  and  Appendix) 

l62 


Dirty            -I 
Ho"?  or          Surface. 
Non-porous  J 

Size  not  sticky  ' 
enough 
Size  not  tough 
enough  (and 
crumbling 
off) 

due  to  faulty 
composition, 
or  mixing. 

To  mate  the  Gold-leaf  stick  to 

the  Size. 

Breathe  on  thoroughly  and 
avoid  delay  in  laying  the 
gold  (p.  154). 

Do  not  allow  size  to  dry  too 
long  (p.  15  i). 

More,  and  more  careful,  rub- 
bing  and  pressure  (p.  156). 

(See  above.) 

Raise  the  size  sufficiently  (p. 
150).  If  not  enough  when 
dry,  roughen  surface  and  add 
another  coat. 

Try  re-gilding  (p.  157),  or,  if 
spots  persist,  scrape  them 
gently  and  try  again  :  failing 
that,  gently  scrape  off  all  the 
gold  and  try  white  of  egg 
(dilute),  or  a  slight  re-sizing 
(as  above). 

If  the  spots  are  very  small  and 
there  is  not  time  to  spare 
for  re-gilding,  they  may  be 
touched  with  powder  gold 
and  dilute  white  of  egg,  and 
burnished  when  dry. 


To  make  the  Gold-leaf  smooth 
and  bright. 

}  Allow    longer    time    (p. 
151). 

Remove  size  and  re-size  with 
proper  composition. 


Sometimes  this  difficulty  may 
be  overcome  by  using  several 
coats  of  gold-leaf  (p.  157). 

Scrape  smooth  with  sharp  knife. 
(Sometimes  the  size  itself  is 
burnished  before  the  gold- 
leaf  is  laid.) 

Clean  burnisher  frequently. 


Probable  Causes  of  Gold-leaf  not 
sticking  to  Size. 
\    due   to  insufficient 
Size  not    I    breathing    on,    or 
damped     >  too  absorbent  nat- 
enough     I    ure  or  condition  of, 
)   size. 

Not     sufficient     rubbing     and 
pressing  on  of  gold. 

Size  not  sticky  enough. 

Not  enough   size,  particularly 
in  thin  lines  and  edges. 


The  gold  may  refuse  to  stick  in 
spots  with  no  apparent  reason, 
but  probably  from  one  or 
other  of  the  above  causes. 
Or  the  size  may  have  been 
touched  accidentally  and 
have  become  greasy  or  dirty. 


Laying  & 

Burnishing 

Gold 


Probable  Causes  of 'Gold-leaf "' 's  not 
burnishing  properly. 
Due  to— 

a.  Damp  weather. 

b.  Insufficient      time 

allowed  for  dry- 
ing. 

c.  Too  much   sticky 

matter  in  size. 


Size 
too 

sticky. 


Size  rough  surfaced. 


Burnisher  becoming  dirty. 
I63 


Laying  &  Both  paper  and  parchment  when  much  wet  with 
Burnishing  size  are  apt  to  cockle.  Generally  it  is  not  possible, 
Gold  or  desirable  (see  p.  174),  to  guard  against  this  by 
first  stretching  the  material,  but  the  size  may  be 
used  with  less  water,  so  that  it  will  dry  sooner.  In 
cases  where  there  is  a  gold  background  it  may  often 
be  divided  into  small  parts  (to  be  sized  at  different 
times)  by  the  pattern  (see  p.  191).  For  large  un- 
broken patches  of  gold  several  thin  coats  may  be  put 
on,  one  after  the  other. 

Some  sizes  have  a  tendency  to  crack  :  this  is 
difficult  to  guard  against.  But,  if  the  cracks  are 
very  minute — such  as  may  be  seen  in  many  in- 
stances in  the  best  early  MSS. — they  do  not 
constitute  a  serious  blemish. 

Burnished  gold  is  often  damaged  by  careless 
handling  or  insufficient  protection. 

GOLD    WRITING 

The  page  (having  been  ruled  as  for  ordinary 
writing)  is  thoroughly  pounced  all  over. 

The  pen  has  an  extra  long  slit,  and  the  size 
is  made  a  little  more  fluid  than  usual  to  allow 
of  its  flowing  freely  and  making  true  pen-strokes 

(p.  63). 

The  desk  is  lowered  (fig.  46,  />),  or  flat,  so  that 
the  size  may  flow  freely. 

The  nib  sometimes  makes  only  a  wet  down- 
stroke  on  the  parchment,  but,  by  lightly  pushing 
the  pen  up  again,  the  stroke  will  be  filled  by  the 
size  which  flows  out  from  under  the  nib.  Simple 
pen-strokes  in  small  writing  hold  but  little,  and  so 
ought  to  be  filled  as  full  of  size  as  possible  (pp.  1 50, 
184).  They  will  be  found  to  dry  much  more 

164 


quickly  than  larger  forms,  and  may  be  gilded  Laying  & 
within  a  few  hours  of  writing.  Half-a-dozen  or  Burnishing 
more  letters  are  gilded  together  (see  p.  156).  Gold 

OTHER    METHODS   &    RECIPES    FOR    GILDING 

Gold-leaf  may  be  cut  with  a  " gilder 's  knife"  on 
a  "gilder's  cushion"  and  picked  up  with  a  "gilder's 

tip:' 

Water,  white  of  egg,  or  alcohol  may  be  used  to 
make  the  gold-leaf  adhere  to  the  size. 

"  Transfer  gold-leaf"  is  convenient,  but  the 
greasiness  of  the  transfer  paper  is  apt  to  dim  the 
gilding. 

Gold-leaf  is  made  in  many  shades,  from  "  red  " 
(gold -|- copper)  to  "green"  (gold -f  silver) ;  though 
these  may  be  used  very  effectively,  they  are  liable 
to  tarnish,  and  it  is  best  to  begin  with  pure  gold 
(see  pp.  152,  169). 

Silver-leaf  oxidises  and  turns  black  ;  platinum  (a 
good  substitute)  costs  about  2s.  6d.,  and  aluminium 
(not  so  good)  about  6d.  per  book. 

"  Gold  Ink"  has  been  made  with  powdered  gold: 
its  effect  is  inferior  to  raised  and  burnished  writing. 

The  following  is  from  "  The  Book  of  the  Art 
of  Cennino  Cennini  "  (written  about  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  Century)  :  Translated  by  Christiana 
J.  Herringham,  1899  : — 

"Chap.  157* — How  you  must  do  miniature-painting 
and  put  gold  on  parchment. 

**  First,  if  you  would  paint  miniatures  you  must  draw 
with  a  leaden  style  figures,  foliage,  letters,  or  whatever 
you  please,  on  parchment,  that  is  to  say,  in  books : 
then  with  a  pen  you  must  make  the  delicate  permanent 

165 


Laying  &  outline  of  what  you  have  designed.  Then  you  must  have 
Burnishing  a  paint  that  is  a  sort  of  gesso,  called  asiso,  and  it  is  made 
Gold  in  this  rnanner  ;  namely,  a  little  gesso  sottile  [see  chap. 
1 1 6,  below]],  and  a  little  biacca  [whiteleadj,  never  more 
of  this  than  equals  a  third  part  of  the  gesso  ;  then  take  a 
little  candy,  less  than  the  biacca ;  grind  these  ingredients 
very  finely  with  clear  water,  collect  them  together,  and 
let  them  dry  without  sun.  When  you  wish  to  use  some 
to  put  on  gold,  cut  off  a  piece  as  large  as  you  have  need 
of,  and  temper  it  with  the  white  of  an  egg,  well  beaten, 
as  I  have  taught  you.  [The  froth  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
one  night  to  clear  itself ,]  Temper  this  mixture  with  it ;  let 
it  dry  ;  then  take  your  gold,  and  either  breathing  on  it  or 
not,  as  you  please,  you  can  put  it  on ;  and  the  gold  being 
laid  on,  take  the  tooth  or  burnishing-stone  and  burnish  it, 
but  hold  under  the  parchment  a  firm  tablet  of  good  wood, 
very  smooth.  And  you  must  know  that  you  may  write 
letters  with  a  pen  and  this  asiso,  or  lay  a  ground  of  it,  or 
whatever  you  please — it  is  most  excellent.  But  before 
you  lay  the  gold  on  it,  see  whether  it  is  needful  to  scrape 
or  level  it  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  or  clean  it  in  any 
way,  for  your  brush  sometimes  puts  more  on  in  one  place 
than  in  another.  Always  beware  of  this." 

"Chap.  1 1 6. — Honv  to  prepare  gesso  sottile  {slaked 
plaster  of  Paris}  for  grounding  panels. 

"  You  must  now  prepare  a  plaster  for  fine  grounds,  called 
gesso  sottile.  This  is  made  from  the  same  plaster  [plaster 
of  Paris ]  as  the  last,  but  it  must  be  well  purified  (pur- 
gata),  and  kept  moist  in  a  large  tub  for  at  least  a  month  ; 
renew  the  water  every  day  until  it  almost  rots,  and  is 
completely  slaked,  and  all  fiery  heat  goes  out  of  it,  and  it 
becomes  as  soft  as  silk.  Throw  away  the  water,  make 
it  into  cakes,  and  let  it  dry ;  and  this  gesso  is  sold  by  the 
druggists  to  our  painters.  It  is  used  for  grounding,  for 
gilding,  for  working  in  relief,  and  other  fine  works." 

1 66 


APPENDIX:    ON  GILDING 
(By  Graify  Hewitt) 

Success  with  raised  gilding  can  only  be  expected  when      Laying  & 
practice  has  rendered  attention  to  the  details  of  the  process     Burnishing 
automatic  and  there  is  no  need  to  pause  and  think.      Even          Gold 
then  the  results  must  be  somewhat  uncertain  and  experi- 
mental.    For  our  own  preparations  of  size  are  usually 
unsatisfactory,  and  the  ingredients  of  the  best  we  can  buy 
are  unknown  to  us.     And  our  vellum  is  certainly  not  of 
the  quality  we  find  in  the  old  books.      Some  one  is  badly 
wanted  to  investigate  the  chemistry  of  the  one  and  an  ap- 
propriate preparation  of  the  other.     But  we  can  take  as 
much  care  as  our  time  allows,  passing  nothing  as  "  good 
enough  "  which  we  have  not  well  examined,  and  bringing 
to  the  business  all  the  patience  and  deftness  available. 

Vellum  is  too  stiff,  or  too  dry,  or  too  greasy.  When 
stiff,  it  is  too  thick  for  books  ;  when  dry,  too  apt  to  crack 
or  cockle  ;  when  too  greasy,  exasperating.  And  yet  the 
soft  and  rather  greasy  sort  can  be  rendered  more  agreeable 
than  the  rest  with  labour.  It  should  be  rubbed  by  the 
flat  of  the  hand  with  powdered  pumice  (or  even  fine  sand- 
paper on  the  rough  side)  and  French  chalk,  especially 
on  its  split  (or  rougher)  side,  until  it  is  serviceable.  A 
few  trials  will  teach  how  long  to  give  to  this.  Five 
minutes  for  one  side  of  a  lamb's  skin  would  not  be  too 
much.  It  can  then  be  beaten  with  a  silk  handkerchief, 
but  not  rubbed  with  this  until  the  size  has  been  laid. 
It  may  be  rubbed  cleaner  between  the  laying  of  the  size 
and  the  gilding.  Especially  must  those  parts  of  pages  be 
thoroughly  rubbed  clean  which  in  the  book,  when  made 
up,  will  lie  upon  and  be  pressed  against  gold  letters 
on  the  page  opposite ;  or  the  pumice  left  behind  will 
scratch  them.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vellum  has  not 
been  thoroughly  pumiced  on  both  pages,  the  greasiness  in 

167 


Laying  &  **•  w^  dim  the  gold  in  time,  both  from  above  and  below ; 
Burnishing  or  even  make  the  size  flake  off  altogether.  The  size 
Gold  ls  often  blamed  for  faults  of  the  vellum  and  its  want  of 
preparation. 

Again  size,  or  "  raising  preparation,"  is  too  sticky  or 
too  dry.  If  the  former,  the  gold  will  not  burnish  well ; 
if  the  latter,  it  will  burnish,  but  will  not  stick  at  the  edges, 
and  will  crack  sooner  or  later.  And  though  the  essential 
quality  of  gilding  is  brightness,  one  may  be  content  to  fail 
of  this  rather  than  hare  letters  ragged  in  outline  or  broken 
on  the  surface. 

The  size  in  use  should  be  just  liquid  enough  to  flow 
evenly  from  the  pen.  More  water  makes  it  dry  too  brittle, 
and  tends  to  cockle  the  vellum  also ;  less  tends  to  blobbi- 
ness  and  unevenness.  Even  when  it  is  put  on  fairly  an 
uncomfortable  groove  is  apt  to  form  as  it  dries  down  the 
centre  of  letters ;  but  this  can  be  either  filled  up  as  soon 
as  the  first  layer  is  dryish,  or  the  sides  of  the  groove  can 
be  scraped  (when  the  letter  is  quite  dry)  down  to  the 
level  of  the  groove  itself  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  knife 
must  be  sharp.  As  this  scraping  does  not  affect  the  ex- 
treme edges  the  power  of  the  size  there  to  hold  the  leaf 
is  not  impaired  by  it ;  and  certainly  a  well-scraped  surface 
is  extremely  even  and  pleasant  to  gild.  If  the  surface, 
however,  be  burnished  and  not  scraped  before  laying  the 
leaf,  it  will  not  hold  the  size  well,  and  remains  lumpy 
also  where  lumps  were  there  originally ;  while  scraping 
gets  rid  of  these.  During  use  the  size  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  mixed  ;  and  a  small  sable  brush  serves  well 
for  this  purpose,  as  soon  as  it  can  be  used  so  carefully  as 
not  to  cause  bubbles. 

To  know  the  exact  time  to  allow  between  laying  and 
gilding  one  had  need  to  be  a  meteorologist,  so  much 
"  depends  on  the  weather."  Very  dry  and  very  wet 
weather  are  equally  unkind.  Generally  an  interval  of 
about  twenty-four  hours  is  right ;  but  it  is  better  to  gild 
too  soon  than  too  late,  provided  one  can  be  content,  on 
testing  the  naked  surface  of  the  gilded  letter  with  a 

1 68 


burnisher,  and  noting  that  the  glitter  is  reluctant  to  come,      Laying  & 
to  leave  the  burnishing  for  a  while,  and  only  lay  the  leaf,     Burnishing 
pressing  it  well  home  to  the  outline  of  the  letters.     The          Gold 
burnishing  can  then  be  done  in  a  few  more  hours.     But 
if  the  size  be  too  dry,  the  difficulty  will  be  to  make  the 
leaf  stick  to  it  at  all.     In  this  case  the  leaf  adhering  can 
be  scraped  off,  the  size  scraped  down  further,  and  another 
thin  coat  added  and  gilded  after  a  shorter  interval.     If 
the  letter  be  so  fouled  that  such  repairs  are  difficult,  it 
should  be  entirely  scraped  away  and  the  size  relaid  alto- 
gether.    In  doing  this  care  is  needed  that  the  vellum  be 
not  injured  round  the  letter. 

The  best  gold-leaf  for  ordinary  work  costs  about 
38.  for  twenty- five  pages.  More  expensive  leaf,  being 
thicker,  does  not  stick  so  well  to  the  edges ;  cheaper  is 
too  thin  to  burnish  well.  Two  kinds  may  be  used 
together  with  good  results,  the  finer  leaf  being  put  on 
next  the  size,  and  the  thicker  at  once  on  to  the  top  of 
that.  The  letter  is  then  pressed  and  outlined  as  usual 
through  paper,  and  the  thin  leaf  will  be  found  of  con- 
siderable assistance  towards  the  making  of  a  clean  cut 
edge.  Generally,  however,  the  piling  on  of  several 
leaves  is  inadvisable,  as  bits  are  liable  to  flake  away  as 
the  letter  goes  on  drying,  leaving  dim  specks  where  they 
have  been.  Yet  if,  after  the  outlining  through  the  paper, 
the  leaf  is  seen  to  be  very  dull  or  speckled  with  the 
colour  of  the  size,  this  means  that  the  size  has  been 
partly  pressed  through  the  leaf;  and  another  laid  im- 
mediately will  have  enough  to  stick  to,  and  will  burnish 
well.  The  best  result  comes  of  one  moderately  thick 
leaf  laid  and  burnished  at  the  right  time  as  quickly  as 
possible.  Thicker  leaves  need  only  be  used  for  large 
surfaces,  where  the  edge  can  be  scraped  even  and  clean, 
or  where  a  black  outline  is  to  be  added. 

As  soon  a*  the  leaf  is  laid,  and  from  that  point  onward, 
the  breath  must  be  kept  from  the  letter  with  a  shield  (of 
cardboard  or  tin)  held  in  the  left  hand  or  otherwise. 
Inattention  to  this  is  responsible  for  many  failures.  Not 

169 


Laying  &  only  should  the  actual  letters  under  operation  be  so  pro- 
Burnishing  tected,  but  where  a  quantity  are  sized  ready  for  gilding 
Gold  on  the  page  these  should  be  protected  also,  as  well  as 
any  parts  already  finished ;  for  breath  not  only  moistens 
but  warms,  and  on  warm  size  moisture  condenses  less 
easily.  If  the  work  to  be  done  presently  is  so  warmed, 
it  will  be  found  more  difficult  to  deal  with  when  its  time 
comes.  The  first  work  done  in  the  day  is  often  the  best, 
and  for  this  reason,  that  the  size  for  it  is  cool ;  but  in 
gilding  this  portion  one  almost  necessarily  warms  that  to 
be  done  later.  Two  pages,  where  possible,  should  there- 
fore be  gilded  alternately,  one  cooling  while  a  portion  of 
the  other  is  gilded.  Or  thin  plates  of  metal,  or  even 
cardboard,  may  be  placed  about  as  shields  to  protect  all 
surfaces  not  under  actual  operation. 

Superfluous  gold  is  best  removed  by  dusting  lightly 
with  an  old  and  very  clean  and  dry  silk  handkerchief. 
Indiarubber  will  certainly  remove  gold  from  the  vellum, 
but  it  will  as  certainly  dim  any  part  of  the  gilding  it 
touches.  If  the  vellum  was  properly  pounced  to  start 
\iith  the  silk  will  easily  remove  all  the  leaf  unstuck, 
except  little  odds  and  ends,  and  these  are  safeliest  taken 
away  with  the  point  of  a  knife. 

As  the  pressure  of  burnishing  helps  the  leaf  to  stick,  it 
is  best  to  wait  till  the  letter  has  been  burnished  before 
this  dusting.  Such  spots  as  are  visible  ungilded  may  be 
afterwards  treated  with  a  slight  breath  and  transfer  gold- 
leaf,  or  gold  dust,  may  be  painted  on  them.  In  the 
latter  case  the  spots  must  be  most  carefully  burnished, 
if  burnished  at  all,  or  their  surroundings  will  be  scratched. 

When  a  gold  letter  is  to  be  set  on  a  coloured  back- 
ground, or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  colour,  it  is  best  put 
on  after  the  colour  ;  as  may  be  observed  was  the  method 
occasionally  with  the  old  books.  If  the  gold  is  put  on  first, 
it  will  certainly  be  dimmed  by  warmth  and  breath  during 
the  colouring.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  put  on  last, 
great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  gold-leaf  shall  not  stick 
to  the  coloured  portions.  Where  possible,  a  stencil 

I70 


pattern  of  the  parts  to  be  gilded  should  be  cut  out  of      Laying  & 
paper.      This  is  easily  made  from  a  pencil  rubbing  taken     Burnishing 
after  the  size  is  laid,  the  raised  pattern  being  of  course          Gold 
cut    out    carefully    a    trifle    larger    than    the    outline    so 
obtained.     The  paper   is   then   laid  over  all   the  work, 
and  the  sized  portions  showing  through  the  cuttings  can 
be  gilded  without  injury  to  the  colour. 

All  gilded  work  should  be  retained,  if  possible,  for  a 
week  or  more,  and  then  re-burnished.  And  in  burnishing 
generally  the  burnisher  should  not  be  used,  even  when  the 
size  is  hard,  with  any  great  force  or  pressure  at  first. 
For  the  size  in  drying  sets  as  if  moulded,  and  this  mould 
cannot  be  squeezed  about  or  actually  crushed  without 
being  loosened  or  cracked.  Throughout  the  whole  pro- 
cess a  gentle  and  vigilant  alacrity  is  required.  Success 
will  come  easily  if  it  means  to  come.  It  cannot  be  forced 
to  come. 

The  binder  of  a  book  with  gilding  in  it  should  be 
warned  to  press  the  sheets  as  little  as  possible,  and  to 
use  all  his  care  in  handling  it,  so  as  to  keep  moisture, 
warmth,  and  fingering  from  the  gold.  The  folding  of 
the  sheets,  when  left  to  him,  should  also  be  done  rather 
differently  from  usual,  for  all  gilded  pages  need  to  be 
kept  as  flat  as  possible.  None  of  the  sizes  in  use  seem 
capable  of  resisting  bending  of  their  surfaces  without 
crimping  or  cracking.  Where  there  is  much  gilding,  the 
book  will  be  the  better  for  being  sewn  with  a  zigzag1 
through  the  sections,  as  this  helps  to  "  guard  "  the  gilded 
work. 


1  Fide  D.  Cockerell,  "  Bookbinding  and  the  Care  of  Books,' 
p.  81. 


171 


CHAPTER   X 


The  Use  of 

Gold& 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


THE     USE    OF    GOLD    &    COLOURS    IN    INITIAL 
LETTERS    &    SIMPLE    ILLUMINATION 

Tools  &  Materials  for  Simple  Illumination — Parchment, 
"  Vellum,"  &  Pounce  —  Colours — Simple  Colour 
Effects — Matt  Gold — Burnished  Gold — Burnished 
Gold  Forms,  &  Outlines — Background  Capitals — 
Applying  the  Background  —  Ornament  of  Back- 
grounds. 

TOOLS    &    MATERIALS    FOR    SIMPLE    ILLUMINATION 

TOOLS,  &c.9  FOR  GILDING.— See  Chapter 
IX.  (pp.  145-6). 

WORT  TRACING  POINT.— This  is  useful 
for  various  purposes,  and  for  indenting  patterns  in 
burnished  gold  (see  p.  191). 

BRUSHES.— Red  Sables  are  very  good.  A 
separate  brush  should  be  kept  for  each  colour — or 
at  least  one  brush  each  for  Reds,  Blues,  Greens, 
White,  and  gold  "paint " — and  it  is  convenient  to 
have  a  medium  and  a  fine  brush  for  each. 

PENS  FOR  COLO UR.— Quill  pens  are  used: 
"  Turkey  "  or  "  Goose,"  The  latter  is  softer,  and 
is  sometimes  preferred  for  colour  work.  For  very 
fine  work  (real)  Crow  Quills  may  be  tried.  A 
separate  pen  should  be  used  for  each  colour. 

COLOURED  INKS.— Brown  ink  (tempered 
with  black  if  desired)  may  be  used  for  fine  out- 
lines :  if  the  outlined  forms  are  to  be  coloured 
afterwards,  it  is  convenient  if  the  ink  be  waterproof. 

172 


Coloured  inks  seldom  have  as  good  a  colour  as  the 

best  paint  colours  (see  Colours  for  Penwork,  p.  176). 

COLOURS.— (p.  175).      MATT  GOLD  (see  p.  183). 

PAINT-BOX.— The  little  chests  of  drawers, 
sold  by  stationers  for  as.  6d.,  make  very  convenient 
"  paint-boxes "  :  pens,  &c.,  may  be  kept  in  one 
drawer ;  gilding,  tools,  &c.,  in  another ;  and 
colours  and  brushes  in  another. 

PAPER  (see  pp.  51,  98,  103).—  PARCHMENT,  FELLUM, 
13*  POUNCE  (see  below). 

PARCHMENT,    "  VELLUM,"    &    POUNCE 

(See  also  Appendix  on  Gilding^  p.  167  and  pp.  98,  356) 

The  name  "Vellum"  (strictly  applicable  only 
to  calf-skin)  is  generally  given  to  any  moderately 
good  skin  prepared  for  writing  or  printing  on.  All 
the  modern  skins  are  apt  to  be  too  stiff  and  horny  : 
chemical  action  (substituted  for  patient  handling), 
followed  by  liberal  sizing  and  "  dressing,"  is  perhaps 
responsible.  The  old  skins  have  much  more  life 
and  character,  and  are  commonly  much  softer. 
Their  surface  is  generally  very  smooth — not  neces- 
sarily glazed — often  with  a  delicate  velvety  napy 
which  forms  a  perfect  writing  surface. 

Parchment  (sheep  -  skin),  as  supplied  by  law- 
stationers,  though  rather  hard,  still  retains  the 
character  of  a  skin,  and  is  in  every  way  preferable 
to  the  Vellum J  which  is  specially  prepared  for  illu- 
minators. A  piece  of  parchment  about  26  inches 
by  22  inches  costs  about  2s.  6d.  Lambskin  is  still 
better. 

"  Roman  Vellum "  is  a  fine  quality  of  sheep  or 

1  The  very  costly,  specially  prepared  calf-skin  is  too  highly 
14  finished,"  and  has  much  the  appearance  of  superior  cardboard. 
It  is  stiff  and  shiny,  and  its  surface  is  objectionable  to  work  on. 

173 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 

Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


The  Use  of    "  lamb  "  skin,  made  in  imitation  of  the  Vellum  used 


Gold  & 
Colours  in 

Initial 

Letters  & 

Simple 


in  the  Vatican. 

The  surface  of  a  modern  skin  may  be  greatly 
improved  by  "pouncing"  but  there  seems  to  be  a 
danger  of  its  becoming  rough  or  porous. 

Pounce. — Fine  powdered  pumice  (as  supplied  by 
Illumination  drysalters)  is  very  good.  It  is  rubbed  on  with  the 
hand  (p.  167),  or  with  a  pad  or  a  piece  of  rag. 
Law-stationers  use  a  pounce  in  which  the  main 
constituents  are  chalk  (or  "  whiting  ")  and  powdered 
resin.  The  latter,  when  used  before  gilding,  is 
apt  to  make  the  gold-leaf  stick  to  the  surrounding 
parchment.  (Before  Writing^  see  Note  7,  p.  359.) 

Chalk, «  Whiting?  "  French  Chalk?  and  Powdered 
Cuttlefish  Bone  might  be  used  as  substitutes  for 
pumice,  or  as  ingredients  in  preparing  a  pounce. 
Sandarach  (a  resin)  rubbed  on  an  erasure  appears  to 
prevent  ink  spreading  when  the  surface  is  written 
over. 

A  skin  of  parchment  has  a  smooth  (whiter)  side 
— the  original  flesh  side — and  a  rougher,  yellower 
side — the  original  hair  side.  The  penman  will  find 
the  smooth  side  preferable  for  writing  on  (though, 
of  course,  both  sides  must  be  used  in  a  book  :  see 
p.  no).  This  side  is  more  easily  damaged,  and 
erasures  have  to  be  very  carefully  made  with  a 
sharp  knife,  or  by  gentle  rubbing  with  indiarubber. 
On  the  rough  side,  erasures  cause  little  or  no  damage 
to  the  surface.  A  piece  of  rubber — or  a  paper 
stump — dipped  in  pounce  may  be  used.  It  is  better 
— as  it  is  more  straightforward — to  avoid  erasures 
if  possible,  and  to  correct  mistakes  frankly,  as  in 
ordinary  writing  (see  p.  344). 

For  ordinary  purposes  parchment  should  be  cut 
to  the  size  desired,  and  be  held  on  the  desk  by  the 

'74 


Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


tape,   guard,  &c.   (see   p.    50).      It   is  generally  a    The  Use  of 
mistake  to  pin  it  down,  or  to  damp  and  stretch  it       Gold  & 
on  the  drawing-board  (see  p.  356). 

Parchment  is  stained  a  fine  purple  with  "  Brazil- 
wood "  :  this  may  be  obtained  from  a  "  store 
chemist."  Three  teacups  full  of  Brazil-wood  are 
stewed  in  about  two  pints  of  water,  with  two 
teaspoonsful  of  alum  (which  acts  as  a  mordant). 
The  colour  of  this  liquid  is  brownish-red,  and  to 
make  it  purple,  carbonate  of  potash  is  added  (very 
carefully,  or  it  will  become  too  blue).  The  liquid 
is  poured  into  a  tray,  and  the  parchment  skin  is 
placed  in  it  for  half  a  day  or  a  couple  of  days.  The 
colour  dries  lighter,  so  it  should  be  prepared  rather 
dark,  and  diluted  if  necessary  :  strips  of  parchment 
should  be  used  to  test  it ;  they  are  taken  out  and 
dried  at  the  fire. 

The  parchment  skin  is  stretched  on  a  frame, 
the  edges  being  caught  up  over  little  buttons  or 
pegs,  and  tied  at  these  points  with  string.  It  is 
allowed  to  dry  slowly. 

COLOURS 

POWDER.  COLOURS  are  the  purest:  they 
may  be  mixed  with  gum  arabic  and  water.  Yolk 
of  egg  and  water  is  sometimes  used  as  a  medium 
(or  white  of  egg)  (see  pp.  166,  179).  It  is  more  con- 
venient for  the  beginner  to  use  prepared  colours, 
which  are  ready  and  dependable. 

CAKE  COLOURS  rank  next  to  powder  colours 
for  purity :  they  seem  to  need  tempering  with  a 
little  gum  or  honey  or  glycerine  (or  egg  —  see 
above)  for  use  on  ordinary  parchment.1  Used 

1  OXGALL  may  be  used  for  a  greasy  surface  ;  painted  on  it, 
or  mixed  with  the  colour. 

175 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


plain 
dry. 


with  water,  they  are  apt  to  flake  off  when 


PAN  COLOURS  are  very  safe  for  ordinary  use. 
TUBE  COLOURS  sometimes  seem  to  have  too 
much  glycerine ;  they  are,  however,  very  con- 
venient for  preparing  mixed  colours  in  any  quan- 
tity, because  of  their  semi-fluid  condition,  and 
because  the  amount  of  each  colour  in  the  mixture 
may  be  judged  with  considerable  accuracy  by  the 
length  which  is  squeezed  out  of  the  tube  (p.  178). 

COLOURS    FOR    PEN  WORK,     fcfc— For 
simple  letters  or  decoration  it  is  well  to  use  a  pure 
RED — neither  crimson  nor  orange  tinged  : 
BLUE — neither  greenish  nor  purplish  : 
GREEN— neither  bluish  nor  "  mossy." 
A  little  "  body  colour  "  is  generally  used  with  blues 
and  greens  to  keep  them  "flat"  (p.  118).     These 
colours  should  be  mixed  as  required,  and  be  diluted 
to  the  right  consistency  with  water 
IK*  poiif t  per?     (see  p.   1 1 8).     Colour  which   has 
'  been  mixed  and  in  use  for  some 

time  —  especially  if  it  has  been 
allowed  to  dry  —  is  best  thrown 
away  (see  mixing  size,  p.  148). 

If  there  is  much  rubricating  to 
be  done,  a  quantity  of  each  colour 
sufficient  to  last  several  days  may 
be  mixed,  and  kept  in  a  covered  pot. 
A  little  pomatum  pot  is  convenient 
— the  smaller  the  better,  as  it  keeps 
the  colour  together,  and  does  not 
allow  it  to  dry  so  quickly. 

The  filling- brush  ( a  rough  brush 
kept  for  filling  the  pen)  may  rest  in  the  pot  (see 
fig.   112),  being  given  a  stir  round  every  time  it  is 
176 


or  saucer. 


may 


Uxnrer  vessel  .A. 
Small  tu^Moth 
tHe  scorn  openek 

ami  tke  bottom 
melted  offta  a. 
ga5  flame,  will 

FIG.  112. 


used  to  prevent  the  settling  of  the  heavy  parts  of 
the  colour.  A  drop  of  water  is  added  occasionally 
as  the  liquid  evaporates  and  becomes  too  thick.1 

TINTS  FEW  AND  CONSTANT.— Red,  Blue, 
and  Green  (and  perhaps  purple]  with  Gold,  White, 
and  Black,  are  sufficient  for  everything  but  the 
most  advanced  type  of  Illumination.  And  it  is  in 
every  way  desirable  that,  until  he  has  become  a 
Master  Limner,  the  Writer  and  Illuminator  should 
strictly  limit  the  number  of  his  colours  (see  p.  215). 

It  is  one  of  the  "  secrets  "  of  good  "  design  "  to 
use  a  limited  number  of  elements — forms  or  colours 
or  materials — and  to  produce  variety  by  skilful  and 
charming  manipulation  of  these. 

It  is  well  to  follow  the  early  Illuminators  in  this 
also  :  that  these  few  colours  be  kept  constant. 
When  you  have  chosen  a  Red,  a  Blue,  and  a  Green — 
as  pure  and  bright  as  you  can  make  them — keep 
those  particular  tints  as  fixed  colours  to  be  used  for 
ordinary  purposes.  For  special  purposes  (pp.  182,  202) 
paler  tints  may  be  made  by  adding  white,  and 
varied  tints  may  be  mixed,  but  even  when  your 
work  has  advanced  so  that  you  require  a  more 
complex  "  palette,"  you  should  stick  to  the  principle 
of  constant  tints  and  modes  of  treatment  for  regular 
occasions :  this  is  the  secret  of  method. 

RED. — Vermilion  is  prepared  in  three  forms  : 
"Vermilion,"  "Scarlet  Vermilion,"  and  "Orange 
Vermilion"  For  ordinary  use  "  Scarlet  Vermilion  " 
is  the  best  (it  may  be  tempered  with  a  minute 
quantity  of  white).  "  Vermilion  "  is  not  quite  so 
bright,  and  tends  more  to  crimson,  but,  mixed  with 

1  And  the  nib  is  cleaned  out  now  and  then  (with  the  filling 
brush),  or  wiped,  to  prevent  the  colour  clogging  it  (see 
p.  70). 

M  177 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 

Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 

Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


"  Orange  Vermilion"  it  gives  the  "  scarlet "  form. 
The  pan  colour  is  generally  most  convenient. 

Where  scarlet  is  in  juxtaposition  with  gold,  their 
effect  may  be  harmonised  by  having  a  large  propor- 
tion of  blue  in  the  neighbourhood  :  sometimes  a 
more  crimson  colour  than  vermilion  may  be  used. 

Chinese  Vermilion  is  a  fine  colour,  but  difficult 
to  obtain  ;  it  is  even  said  that  the  genuine  pigment 
is  reserved  exclusively  for  the  Chinese  Emperor 
(whose  edicts  are  written  with  "The  Vermilion 
Pencil"). 

GREEN. — Verdigris  is  a  very  fine  colour,  closely 
resembling,  and  possibly  the  same  pigment  as,  the 
green  in  early  MSS.,  but  I  believe  that  it  has  not 
been  rendered  permanent  in  modern  use. 

Green  Oxide  of  Chromium  (transparent)  (or  "  Veri- 
dian ")  is  a  very  good  permanent  green.  It  is 
rather  a  thin  colour,  and  requires  body,  which  may 
be  given  with  lemon  yellow,  or  with  white  and  yellow 
ochre  ;  being  a  rather  bluish  green,  it  is  the  better 
for  a  little  yellow.  This  (mixed)  green  is  most 
conveniently  prepared  from  tube  colours. 

BLUE. —  Ultramarine  Ash  (whole  tube  about 
48.)  is  a  very  beautiful  colour.  It  is  rather  pale  and 
transparent  (and  a  little  "  slimy  "  to  work)  when 
used  alone.  A  mixture  (preferably  made  with  tube 
colours)  consisting  of  Ultramarine  Ash  and  Chinese 
White  and  (a  very  little)  Prussian  Blue  makes  an 
extremely  fine,  pure  blue.  A  similar  mixture  with 
cobalt  as  a  base  makes  a  very  good  blue. 

Ultramarine  or  Powdered  Lapis  Lazuli  (unfortu- 
nately known  as  "  Genuine  Ultramarine "l)  is  a  fine 
colour ;  it  may  have  a  slightly  purplish  tint  and  need 

1   "French  Ultramarine"  is  an  artificial  compound,  and  a  poor 
colour. 

.78 


tempering  with  green  to  make  a  pure  blue  (whole 
cake  about  i8s.). 

The  Blue  in  common  use  in  early  MSS.  (before 
Ultramarine  came  into  use)  has  a  fine,  pure  colour, 
and  considerable  body  :  it  is  more  raised  than  any 
other  colour  ;  it  is  often  seen  to  be  full  of  little 
sparkles,  as  though  there  were  powdered  glass  in  it. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  prepared  from  a  copper 
ore. 

The  following  note  on  this  blue  has  been  given 
to  me  by  Mr.  C.  M.  Firth  : — 

"The  blue  is  Native  Carbonate  of  Copper  finely 
powdered  and  tempered  with  white  of  egg  (Vermilion 
is  tempered  with  the  Yolk)." 

"  The  ore  is  of  two  kinds,  a  crystalline  of  a  medium 
hardness  found  in  France  at  Chessy,  and  hence  called 
Chessylite,  and  a  soft  earthy  kind  which  is  obtained  in 
Hungary,  and  largely  now  from  Australia.  The  latter  is 
from  its  ease  of  manipulation  the  best  for  paint  making. 
It  should  be  ground  dry  till  it  is  no  longer  gritty  and  is 
of  a  sky  blue  (pale)  colour." 

"  The  Blue  in  MSS.  was  liable  to  wash  off,  but  the 
oil  in  the  Yolk  prevented  a  similar  result  with  the  Ver- 
milion. The  Blue  is  identical  with  the  Azzuro  della 
magna  (for  d'allemaigne)  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
frequently  advanced  hypothesis  that  the  blue  was  due  to 
a  glass  is  based  on  the  accounts  of  (I.)  The  Vestorian 
blue  copper  *  frit '  for  enamels  probably  ;  (II.)  on  the 
accounts  in  sixteenth  century  of  the  Manufacture  of 
Smalt,  which  owes  its  colour  to  a  glass  tinted  with  Cobalt. 
This  Azzuro  is  the  oldest  known  Western  blue,  and  was 
probably  employed  on  Egyptian  walls,  where  it  has  gone 
green,  as  also  in  Italian  Frescoes." 

"The  Green  tint  of  the  chemical  change  in  the 
Copper  is  seen  in  initials  in  books  too  much  exposed  to  the 
damp.  These  exhibit  a  bright  green  tint  in  places  where 
the  colour  was  thinly  applied." 

I79 


The  Use  of 

Gold& 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


It  appears  that  Yolk,  besides  being  unsuited  in 
colour  for  tempering  this  blue,  changes  it  to  a 
greenish  colour  (the  effect  of  the  oil,  which  forms 
about  30  per  cent,  of  Yolk  of  Egg). 

WHITE.— The  tube  Chinese  White1  is  the 
most  convenient  to  use  when  tempering  colours. 

"White  Line  or  Hair  Finishing"  (see  p.  183). 
Various  tools  have  been  recommended  for  this.  A 
sable  pencil  with  the  outer  hairs  cut  away,  "the 
smallest  brush  "  made,  and  even  a  fine  steel  pen. 
I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  some  of  the  early 
Illuminators  used  a  fine  quill — such  as  a  crow  quill, 
or  a  goose  quill  scraped  thin  and  sharply  pointed. 

PURPLE  is  seldom  used  in  simple  pen-work, 
lettering,  &c.,  but  largely  and  with  very  fine  effect 
in  complex  illumination.  A  reddish-purple  is  to  be 
preferred.  A  good  colour  can  be  made  from  the 
purple  stain  described  on  p.  175,  or  from  Ruby 
madder  and  a  little  Rose  madder,  with  a  very  little 
Ultramarine. 


SIMPLE    COLOUR    EFFECTS 


Simple  "  Rubrication  "  (see  p.  127). — Red  letters 
were  most  commonly  contrasted  with  blue  (the 
"  warmest "  and  "  coldest "  colours),2  in  some  MSS. 
with  green  alone,  but  more  commonly  the  three 


1  For  white  lining,   &c. — if  in  constant  use — the  Chinese 
White  in  bottle  is  said  to  be  the  best ;  a  little  Spirits  of  Wine 
should  be  poured  into  it,  to  keep  it  moist  and  make  it  work 
better.     It  should  be  stirred  well,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  for 
immediate  use  is  taken  out  and  mixed  in  a  small  saucer.     The 
bottle  is  kept  tightly  corked. 

2  And  single  forms  were  often  parti-coloured,  as  III.,  IV., 
Blue,  with  red  serifs,  or  vice  versa  (see  also  pp.  208,  216). 

1 80 


generally  — 

Red  cap.     * 

RED 

B/M£  cap. 

in 
columns  of 

BLUE 

Red  cap. 

Versal 
letters 

RED 

Green  cap. 

(see  fig. 
93). 

GREEN 

&c. 

&c. 

colours  were  used  together,  the  alterations   being    The  Use  of 

Gold& 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
in  lines  of      Illumination 

Caps. 

(see  fig. 

89). 


Repetition  and  Limitation  of  Simple  Colours  (and 
Forms). — The  uniform  treatment  of  a  MS.  neces- 
sitates that  no  colour  (or  form)  in  it  should  be  quite 
singular,  or  even  isolated  if  it  can  possibly  be  re- 
peated. If,  for  example,  there  be  a  Red  capital  on 
the  "Verso  "  page,  the  "opening"  is  improved  by 
some  Red — a  capital,  a  rubric,  or  even  a  line- 
finishing — on  the  "  Recto  "  page.  Very  often  the 
one  piece  of  colour  is  very  small,  and,  as  it  were, 
an  echo  of  the  other  (compare  Line-finishings  and 
Initials,  pp.  205,  193).  While  it  is  not  always 
possible  or  desirable  so  to  treat  both  pages  of  an 
opening,  yet,  in  the  book  taken  as  a  whole,  every 
colour  used  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  there  is  a 
reasonable  opportunity.  And,  therefore,  where  the 
opportunities  for  colour  in  a  book  are  few  and  far 
between,  it  is  well  to  limit  the  "  colours  "  used  to 
two,  or  even  one. 

This  necessity  for  repetition  applies  to  simple 
rather  than  to  complex  "  Illuminated  "  Forms — e.g. 
a  book  need  not  have  more  than  one  Illuminated 
Initial — but  within  such  complex  forms  themselves 

181 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


repetition  is  recognised  as  one  of  the  first  principles 
of  "  decorative  design"  (see  p.  215). 

Proportions  of  Colours. — In  Harmonious  Illumina- 
tion, Blue  very  commonly  is  the  predominating 
colour  ;  but  no  exact  proportions  can  be  laid  down, 
for  the  combined  colour  effect  depends  so  much  on 
the  arrangement  of  the  colours. 

Effects  of  Neighbouring  Colours.1 — When  blue  and 
red  are  in  juxtaposition,  the  blue  appears  bluer  and 
greener  ;  the  red  appears  brighter  and  more  scarlet. 
With  Red  and  Green,  the  Red  appears  more  crim- 
son, and  the  green,  greener  and  blue"r.  A  greenish 
blue  will  appear  plain  blue  beside  a  pure  green  ;  a 
blue  with  a  purplish  tinge  will  appear  more  purple. 
Experiments  might  profitably  be  made  with  simple 
arrangements  of  Red,  Blue,  Green,  Black,  White, 
and  Gold  in  combinations  of  two  or  more. 

Tempering  Colours  with  White. — Forms  such  as 
flower  petals,  &c.,  may  be  painted  in  Blue  or  Red, 
paled  with  White,  and  then  be  shaded  with  the 
pure  colour  ;  this  gives  considerable  richness,  and 
the  effect  may  be  heightened  by  very  careful  white 
line  work  (q-v.}.  Green  leaves,  &c.,  may  be  made 
very  pale  and  then  touched  with  Yellow — this  gives 
a  brilliant  effect. 

Black  Outlines. — The  effect  of  these  is  to  make  a 
bright  colour  appear  brighter  and  richer,  to  define, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  harmonise,  neighbouring 
colours  and  shapes,  and  to  keep  the  design  flat  (see 

1  In  "  white  light "  three  rays  (known  as  the  "  Primary 
Colour-Sensations ")  have  been  distinguished — Red,  Green,  and 
Blue ;  any  two  of  these  are  complementary  to  the  remaining 
colour,  and  appear  to  be  induced  optically  in  its  neighbourhood. 

(Yellow  light  is  combined  of  Red  and  Green  rays,  and  this 
may  partly  explain  the  particular  fitness  of  Blue  and  Gold 
Illumination.) 

l82 


Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


p.   1 86).     For  one  or  more  of  these   reasons,  all    The  Use  of 
coloured  forms — patterns,  charges,  &c. — in  a  com-       Gold  & 
pound  colour  scheme  have  an  outline — strong  or 
delicate,  according  to  the  strength  or  delicacy  of 
the  work  (see  pp.  188,  187,  202,  221,  165). 

White  Lining. — A  black  outline  is  often  separated 
from  the  colour  by  a  fine  white  line  (see  fig.  129). 
White  lines  also  are  used  to  harmonise  colours,  one 
or  more  commonly  being  painted  (or  "  penned  ") 
upon  the  colours.  This  tends  to  make  the  colours 
appear  paler  and  lighter — brightening  them  if  they 
are  dark.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  overdo  the 
white  lining,  or  it  will  make  the  colours  chalky  and 
cold.  White  is  also  used  in  groups  of  dots,  and  in 
fine  patterns  on  backgrounds  (see  pp.  213,  430). 

Gold  is  even  more  effective  than  white  or  black 
for  harmonising  colours.  It  is  commonly  Bur- 
nished in  bars  or  frames  (see  p.  481),  and  in  spots 
(pp.  481,  187),  or  in  large  masses  (p.  191).  Matt 
Gold  (see  below). 

MATT    GOLD 

Matt  gold,  or  gold  "paint" — the  pure  gold  powder 
with  white  of  egg  is  best — is  generally  painted 
upon  colour.  It  was  much  used  in  old  miniatures 
for  "hatching"  and  lighting  landscapes,  houses, 
costumes,  &c. ;  and  stars,  rays  of  light,  and  outlines 
of  clouds  were  painted  in  delicate  gold  lines  upon 
the  blue  of  the  skies.  Such  gold  lining  has  a  very 
mellowing  and  pleasant  effect  upon  colour,  but  it 
can  easily  be  overdone.  Matt  gold  may  be  used 
besides,  for  letters,  ornament,  and  patterns  painted 
upon  colour.  Such  forms  have  either  no  outline,  or 
a  very  faint  one  :  their  effect  depends  upon  their 
lightness,  and  they  are  not  made  to  appear  solid. 

'83 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 

Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


A  very  pretty  effect  may  be  obtained  in  a  small 
and  not  very  formal  manuscript  by  painting  into 
the  spaces  left  for  the  capitals  little  squares  of  red 
and  blue,  and  painting  upon  these  the  letters  and 
ornament — all  in  gold  powder — very  freely  and 
quickly.  The  kind  of  treat- 
ment is  rather  crudely  suggested 
by  fig.  113.  The  pleasant  ap- 
pearance of  the  pages — as  though 
they  were  scattered  over  with 
tiny  squares  of  cloth  of  gold  and 
red  and  blue — is  produced  with 
comparative  ease,  while  the  use 
of  leaf  gold  might  entail  an  ex- 
penditure of  more  time  and  pains  than  the  book 
was  worth.  In  the  finest  class  of  manuscripts, 
however,  these  matt  gold  letters  would  be  some- 
what informal  and  out  of  place. 


FIG.  113. 


BURNISHED    GOLD 

Gold  is  always  raised  and  burnished  as  bright  as 
possible,  unless  there  is  a  special  reason  for  using 
matt  gold. 

The  height  to  which  it  is  raised  varies,  according 
to  the  effect  desired,  from  a  considerable  thickness 
to  the  thinnest  possible  coat  of  "  size."  Extremely 
thin  and  extremely  thick  raising  are  both  objection- 
able (see  p.  150)  :  roughly  speaking,  a  suitable  height 
for  any  ordinary  purpose  is  between  TJ-g-  and  -^  of 
an  inch. 

The  surface,  in  the  case  of  large  forms,  is  gene- 
rally made  as  smooth  and  perfect  as  possible,  so  that, 
as  Cennino  Cennini  says,  the  burnished  gold  "  will 
appear  almost  dark  from  its  own  brightness"  ;  and  its 


brightness  is  only  seen  when  the  light  falls  on  it  at 
a  particular  angle.  The  gilding  of  a  manuscript, 
however,  is  slightly  flexible,  and  a  large  gilded 
surface  is  likely  to  be  bent,  so  that  some  part  of  it 
is  sure  to  catch  the  light. 

Small  surfaces  highly  burnished  very  often  do 
not  show  the  effect  of,  or  "  tell "  as,  gold,  unless 
they  catch  the  light  by  accident.  It  is  well,  there- 
fore, where  the  forms  are  small  to  have  several  on 
the  page,  so  that  one  or  another  will  always  shine 
out  and  explain  the  rest.  And  while  the  proper 
craftsman  tries  always  to  get  the  best  finish  which 
he  reasonably  can,  the  natural,  slight  unevennesses 
or  varying  planes  of  small  gilded  forms  may  be  of 
advantage  to  the  whole  effect.  The  pleasant  effect 
of  such  natural  variations  may  be  seen  in  thirteenth- 
century  Initials,  where  numbers  of  little  gold  pieces 
are  fitted  into  the  backgrounds,  and  their  changing 
surfaces  cause  the  whole  to  be  lit  up  with  little 
sparkles  of  light.  A  parallel  to  this  may  be  found 
in  the  hand-tooling  of  a  book-cover,  which  sparkles 
with  gold,  because  the  binder  could  not  press  in 
each  piece  of  gold-leaf  absolutely  level.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  "  deadness  "  of  a  machine-stamped 
cover  is  largely  due  to  the  dead  level  of  its  gilding. 

Black  and  Gold. — One  of  the  finest  effects  in 
calligraphy  can  be  obtained  by  the  simple  contrast 
of  gold  capitals  with  black  writing  (see  p.  299). 

While,  as  in  the  case  of  black  and  ra/,  the 
strongest  effects  are  obtained  by  a  marked  contrast, 
gold  may  yet  be  very  effectively  used  for  small 
capitals  throughout  the  black  text.  It  does  not 
lose  or  blend  its  brilliance  with  the  black  of  the 
writing  as  colour  is  apt  to  do,  but  lights  up  and 
illuminates  the  page.  For  this  reason  gold  will 

185 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 

Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


The  Use  of   "  help  out  "  and  make  agreeable  a  black  and  colour 
Gold  &       effect  which,  by  itself,  would  have  been  a  failure 
Colours  in     (see  p.  174). 

T      •    •     1  "  *  «JT/ 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple  BURNISHED    GOLD    FORMS   &    OUTLINES 

Illumination  pia'ln  gff/j  letters,  symbols,  and  other  detached  forms, 
not  having  backgrounds,  are  usually  not  outlined.  An 
outline  cheapens  their  effect,  making  them  darker 
and  heavier,  and,  if  the  line  be  at  all  thick,  conceal- 
ing the  true  form  of  the  letter,  and  giving  it  a 
clumsy  appearance. 

It  is  an  instructive  experiment  to  make  a  gold 
(or  plain  white)  letter  with  a  thick  outline 
(a,  fig.  114),  and  then  paint  a  background  round 
it.  The  effect  is  quite  altered,  and  greatly  im- 
proved (b,  fig.  114).  The  outline  no  longer  tells 


FIG.  114. 

as  the  outer  line  of  the  form,  but  partakes  more  of 
the  nature  of  the  background,  in  which  it  cuts  out, 
as  one  might  say,  a  little  niche  for  the  letter  to 
rest  in. 

Gold-leaf  forms   on  coloured  backgrounds  are   out- 

186 


lined — generally  in  black — in  order  that  letter  and 
background  may  together  form  a  flat  design,  stable 
and  at  rest  in  the  page. 

The  distinction  between  the  use  of  gold  "paint" 
and  the  treatment  of  a  leaf  gold  form  should  be 
carefully  observed  :  the  matt  gold  powder  lies  upon 
colour,  and  may  appear  to  blend  with  it  (p.  183)  ; 
the  bright  gold- leaf  constitutes  a  distinct  form,  which 
either  lies  upon  the  surface  of  a  page,  or  is,  as  it 
were,  set  in  a  background. 

Gold  (leaf)  Floral  Ornament,  &c. — If  the  stalk  and 
leaves  are  both  gold  :  they  are  commonly  not  out- 
lined, unless  on  a  background. 

If  there  be  a  thin  stalk  in  black  or  colour  with 
gold  leaves  :  the  leaves  are  outlined  with  the  stalk- 
colour  (they  were  commonly  furred  :  <:,  fig.  115). 

If  there  be  a  thick  coloured  stalk  with  gold  leaves  : 
both  stalk  and  leaves  commonly  have  a  black  outline, 
the  "leaves"  often  being  treated  as  spots  of  gold 
(below). 

Gold  Spots  or  Dots  are  usually  outlined  and  furred 
with    black  (fig.   115).      The 
effect  produced  is  of  a  bright 
gold    form    on    a  grey    back- 
ground. 

A  simple  "leaf"  or  de- 
tached spot  of  gold  has  a 
formless  look,  much  as  a 
small  blot  of  colour  or  ink 
would  have.  The  black 
outline  and  the  grey  back- 
ground -  effect  seem  in  this 
case  to  give  form  and  interest 
to  the  spot ;  at  least  they  give  it  a  place  to  rest 
in — a  nest  to  hold  the  small  golden  egg. 


c. 


FIG.  115. 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


The  Use  of 

Gold  & 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


Even  a  stalk  and  tendril  (dy  fig.  115)  has  the  same 
effect  of  giving  intention  and  meaning  to  what 
might  otherwise  be  a  mere  blot. 

When  several  spots  of  gold  (or  colour)  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  simple  design,  together  they  constitute 
a  simple  form  which  does  not  require  a  background. 
Thus  the  line-finishing  .*.  (#,  fig.  126)  has  a  formal 
and  intentional  arrangement  in  itself,  and  therefore 
need  not  be  outlined. 


BACKGROUND    CAPITALS 

Background  Capitals  or  Initials  frequently 
employ  burnished  gold,  either  for  the  letters 
or  the  ground.  All  the  parts  (including  "  solid  " 
patterns)  are  generally  outlined  in  black,  or  dark 
colour. 

The  commonest  colours  for  grounds  are  Reds  and 
Blues.  The  grounds  are  frequently  countercharged, 
or  made  one  colour  inside  and  another  outside  the 
initial  (p.  190).  Sometimes  little  or  no  gold  is  used, 
and  many  fine  white  lines  are  employed  to  separate 
and  harmonise  the  colours  of  the  Initial  and  the 
ground.  It  is  well,  however,  for  the  beginner  to 
keep  the  letter  and  the  ground  distinct,  by  observing 
the  Herald's  maxim,  and  using  "  Metal  on  colour, 
or  colour  on  metal." 

The  forms  of  the  letters  vary  from  those  of  ordinary 
capitals  in  being  thicker  in  proportion  to  their 
height,  and  frequently  in  having  no  serifs.  A 
very  thin  line  or  serif  is  apt  to  be  lost  in  the 
background. 

A  very  good  form  of  background  initial  may  be 

188 


made  out  of  the  ROMAN  CAPITAL  (*,  fig.  1 16)  The  Use  of 

Gold  & 

A             A             vA            r-r^v  Colours  in 

A      XV      Yfv\  Initial 

A\   /M           ))  Letters& 

/  \\                               J/  Simple 

/4r^\        V-l                "^\  Illumination 
' 


(a.) 


II 


I  Tiff 


Roman. 
(*1 

FIG.  1 1 6. 


by  thickening  all  its  parts  ;  in  place  of  the  serifs, 
curving  out  and  shaping  the  ends  of  the  stems  (/>,  d) 
to  a  sort  of 'u blunderbuss"  pattern  (g). 


APPLYING   THE    BACKGROUND 

It  is  well  first  to  make  the  letter,1  and  then  to 
apply  the  background  to  it  (as  though  it  were  a  sort 
of  mosaic).  The  background  is  packed  tightly  round 
the  letter,  and  the  letter  occupies  the  background, 

1  In  the  case  of  a  burnished  gold  letter,  the  gilding  may  be 
deferred  until  the  adjacent  coloured  parts  are  finished  (see 
p.  170). 

189 


The  Use  of   so  that  they  appear  to  be   in  the  same   plane 


Gold& 

Colours  in 

Initial 

Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


fig.  117). 


TKomm  of  (<t.) 
,  natural 


together 

bad<gnnuid.Ncrte    Or 
al5o  cannten3uuget 


FIG.  117. 


Such  "  flatness "  is  secured  even  more  certainly 
and  effectively  by  using  two  colours  (e.g.  red  and 
blue)  in  the  background — one  inside  and  one  outside 
the  letter  (see  Plate  XIL). 

The  curves  of  the  gold  letter  may  with  advantage 
slightly  project,  and  so  break  the  hard,  square  out- 
line of  the  background. 

The  letter  should  not  have  the  appearance  of 
being  "  stuck  on,"  as  it  is  apt  to  if  the  background 
is  large  and  empty,  or  if  the  ornament  passes  behind 
the  letter  (£,  fig.  117). 

In  the  case  of  letters  with  projecting  stems  or 
tails  :  the  tail  may  be  outside  the  background  (a, 

190 


fig.  1 1 8),  or  the  background  may  be  prolonged  on 


Jimp/e  ftadumntnds  fir  tad&t 


FIG.  118. 

one  or  both  sides  of  the  tail  (b  and  c\  or  the  whole 
"  field  "  may  be  enlarged  to  take  in  the  complete 
letter  (d). 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  variety  of  shapes  which 
backgrounds  may  take  —  symmetrical  or  asymmet- 
rical, regular  or  irregular  —  provided  they  fit  the 
initial  or  the  ornament  (which  may  itself  partially, 
or  entirely,  bound  them),  are  properly  balanced  (see 
Plate  XII.,  and  p.  419),  and  take  their  right  place 
on  the  page. 


The  Use  of 

Gold& 

Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


ORNAMENT    OF    BACKGROUNDS 

The  ornament,  as  a  rule,  covers  the  background 
evenly,  and  is  closely  packed  or  fitted  into  its  place. 

Gold  grounds  are  generally  plain,  sometimes  bearing 
patterns  in  dots.  These  are  indented  in  the  surface 
by  means  of  a  point  (p.  172)  which  is  not  too  sharp. 
It  presses  the  gold-leaf  into  tiny  pits,  but  does  not 
pierce  it.  Gold  grounds  may  be  broken  up  into  small 
parts  by  coloured  chequers  (p.  215)  or  floral  patterns. 

191 


The  Use  of 

Gold& 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


Coloured  grounds  are,  as  a  rule,  more  or  less  evenly 
covered  with  some  form  of 
decoration  in  thin  white  or 
matt  gold  lines,  or  in  "  solid " 
patterns  in  various  colours  (see 
pp.  202,  212).  A  simple  and 
pretty  diaper  pattern  may  be 
made  by  diagonal  lines  of  matt 
gold,  cutting  up  the  colour  into 
small "  lozenges,"  each  alternate 
lozenge  having  a  fleur-de-lis  or 
little  cross,  or  other  simple 
ornament  (fig.  119). 

A  bolder  design,  in  a  broad 
FIG.  119.  white    or    coloured    line,    may 

be,  as  it  were,  woven  through 
counterfeited  slits  in  the  letter  (fig.  I2O).     This  helps 


FIG.  120. 


to   preserve   the    general    flatness    of    the    letter, 
192 


Gold  & 
Colours  in 

Initial 
Letters  & 

Simple 
Illumination 


background,  and   ornament,   and    gives   additional    The  Use  of 
interest. 

The  mimic  slits  are  made  by  black  lines  drawn 
on  the  burnished  gold  of  the  letter.  Where  the 
stem  of  the  ornament  comes  over  the  gold,  the  size 
is  cut  away  with  a  pen-knife  ;  the  part  hollowed  out 
is  painted  with  white  to  cover  any  blemishes,  and 
then  painted  with  the  stem  colour,  and  outlined. 

A  plain  or  pale  stem  may  have  a  faint  or  brown 
outline,  and  be  "  shaded  "  at  the  sides  (with  greys, 
browns,  or  yellows)  to  give  an  effect  of  solidity  ;  a 
stem  that  is  painted  in  strong  colour  (e.g.  red  or 
blue)  may  have  a  central  white  line  painted  upon  it. 

Note  that  where  the  initials  have  backgrounds, 
the  line-finishings  are  commonly  made  with 
backgrounds  to  match,  though  their  treatment  is 
naturally  much  simpler  (see  Plates  XV.,  XVII. ). 


CHAPTER   XI 

A    THEORY    OF    ILLUMINATION 

Illumination — "  Barbaric,  or  Colour-Work,  Illumina- 
tion " — "  Filigree,  or  Pen- Work,  Illumination  " — 
"Natural,  or  Limner's,  Illumination." 


ILLUMINATION 

IT  is  convenient  to  give  a  wide  meaning  to   the  A  Theory  of 
word   when   we  speak  of  an   "illuminated  manu-    Illumination 
script,"  for  the  scribe  works  with  a  very  free  hand, 
and  when  he  wishes  to  decorate  his  pages  he  can 
N  193 


A  Theory  of  write  the  words  themselves  in  red,  green,  or  blue, 
Illumination  as  easily  as  he  could  have  written  them  in  black. 
He  can  take  a  clean  pen  and  a  new  colour  and 
initial  and  "  flourish  "  any  part  of  the  work  to  his 
heart's  content.  He  may  acquire  the  art  of  laying 
and  burnishing  gold,  and  no  possible  brilliance  of 
effect  is  denied  him — within  the  limits  of  his  skill 
as  an  illuminator  (see  also  pp.  298-299). 

A  limited  number  of  specially  prepared  printed 
books  can  likewise  be  illuminated.  But  the  greater 
the  number  of  copies,  the  less  labour  may  be  spent 
on  each  one,  and  the  more  their  illumination  tends 
to  be  simple  "  rubrication " —  adding  coloured 
capitals,  flourishes,  and  the  like  (see  p.  127).  And, 
if  a  large  edition  is  to  be  decorated,  the  printer 
must  be  content  to  use  black,  or  black  and  red,  in 
woodcut  or  "process"  work  (see  pp.  365,  372). 

Illumination  proper  may  be  defined  as  the 
decoration  by  hand,  in  bright  gold  or  colours,  of 
writing  or  printing. 

There  are  three  broad  types  of  illumination, 
which  for  want  of  better  terms  I  distinguish  as 
"  Barbaric  "  (or  colour-work),  "  Filigree  "  (or  pen- 
work),  and  "Natural"  (or  limner's).  These  types 
run  naturally  one  into  another,  and  they  may  be 
blended  or  combined  in  every  possible  way,  but  it 
is  convenient  to  consider  them  and  the  distinctive 
treatments  which  they  involve  separately. 


"  BARBARIC,  OR  COLOUR-WORK,    ILLUMINATION  " 

(See  also  pp.  203,  208,  209,215-18,  414,  421,422) 

This  js  mainly  a   colour   treatment   in    which 
forms  seem  to  be  regarded  chiefly  as  vehicles  for 


colour.     Its  effect  appeals  to  the  senses,  rather  than  A  Theory  of 
to  the  imagination  ;  and  such  interest  as  the  forms    Illumination 
have  lies  greatly  in  their  skilful  disposal  or  intricate 
arrangement.     Sometimes  in  their  fantasy — where 
organic  forms  are  introduced — as  the  "  great  fish  " 
in  the  act  of  swallowing  Jonah  (in  order  to  make 
the  T  of  ET),  Plate  XII.     This  type  of  illumina- 
tion   appears     to     have     reached    its    climax    of 
barbaric  splendour  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries. 

Though  its  revival  nowadays  might  seem  a  little 
out  of  keeping  with  the  more  sedate  and  grown-up 
point  of  view  of  modern  life,  we  cannot  doubt  that 
it  is  still  /awful  to  decorate  our  work  with  the 
brilliance  and  splendour  of  gold  and  colours. 
Whether  it  is  expedient  or  not  depends  upon  how 
it  is  done  :  to  justify  our  work,  it  must  succeed  ; 
it  must  be  bright  and  splendid,  and  really  gladden 
our  eyes.  And  we  must  really  take  pleasure  in  the 
making  of  it,  for  if  we  do  not,  we  can  hardly 
expect  that  it  will  give  pleasure  to  others. 

Simple  and  Complex  Forms. — Between  simple  forms 
— which  are  in  a  sense  permanent — and  complex 
forms — which  are  always  changing — it  is  necessary 
to  make  a  careful  distinction. 

An  equilateral  triangle  drawn  by  "  Euclid  "  and 
one  drawn  by  a  modern  Senior  Wrangler  are,  or 
ought  to  be,  practically  the  same  thing.  If  the 
ancients  made  an  ornamental  band  of  geometrical 
forms,  that  is  no  bar  to  us ;  we  also  are  at  liberty 
to  make  decorative  bands  of  circles,  lozenges,  or 
triangles. 

The  ancient  Romans  made  a  capital  A — its 
essential  form  (see  fig.  142)  two  strokes  sloped  to- 
gether and  joined  by  a  cross-bar  (very  like  the 

195 


A  Theory  of  "  Pons  Asmorum  "),  ft  could  hardly  be  simpler — 
Illumination  they  used  chisels  and  pens,  which  gave  it  its  more 
characteristic  and  finished  form.  If  we  use  chisels 
and  pens  properly  we  shall  get  a  similar  result — 
not  absolutely  the  same — for  no  two  chisels  or  two 
hands  can  be  quite  the  same — but  closely  resem- 
bling it  and  belonging  to  our  own  time  as  much  as 
to  any  other. 

The  essential  form  of  the  "  Roman "  A  is  a 
purely  abstract  form,  the  common  property  of 
every  rational  age  and  country,1  and  its  character- 
isation is  mainly  the  product  of  tools  and  materials 
not  peculiar  to  the  ancient  Romans. 

But  when  there  is  any  real  complexity  of  form 
and  arrangement,  or  sentiment,  we  may  reasonably 
suppose  that  it  is  peculiar  to  its  time,  and  that  the 
life  and  virtue  of  it  cannot  be  restored. 

It  was  common  enough  in  the  Middle  Ages  to 
make  an  initial  A  of  two  dragons  firmly  locked 
together  by  claws  and  teeth.  Such  forms  fitted 
the  humour  of  the  time,  and  were  part  of  the  then 
natural  "scheme  of  things."  But  we  should  be- 
ware of  using  such  antique  fantasies  and  "  organ- 
isms " ;  for  medieval  humour,  together  with  its 
fauna  and  flora,  belong  to  the  past.  And  our  own 
work  is  only  honest  when  made  in  our  own 
humour,  time,  and  place. 

There  are,  however,  an  infinite  variety  of  simple 
abstract  forms  and  symbols,  such  as  circles,  crosses, 
squares,  lozenges,  triangles,  and  a  number  of 
Alphabets,  such  as  Square  and  Round  Capitals, 

1  It  has  even  been  supposed  that  we  might  make  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Mart  aware  of  the  existence  of  rational  Terrestrials,  by 
exhibiting  a  vast  illumination — in  lamp-light — consisting  of  a 
somewhat  similar  form — the  frit  Proposition  in  Euclid. 
196 


Small  Letters  —  upright  and  sloping  —  which  —  A  Theory  of 
weeded  of  archaisms — we  may  use  freely.  And  Illumination 
all  these  forms  can  be  diversified  by  the  tools 
with  which  they  are  made,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  tools  are  used,  and  be  glorified  by  the 
addition  of  bright  colours  and  silver  and  gold. 
Very  effective  "designs"  can  be  made  with 
"chequers"  and  diaper  patterns,  and  with  the 
very  letters  themselves.  And  I  have  little  doubt 
that  an  excellent  modern  style  of  illumination  is 
quite  feasible,  in  which  the  greatest  possible  rich- 
ness of  colour  effect  is  achieved  together  with 
extreme  simplicity  of  form. 

"FILIGREE,  OR  PEN-WORK,  ILLUMINATION" 

(See  also  pp.  205-208,  209,  2l8-2O,  425,  428-29  ; 
figs.  79,  92,  125-26,  150,  188-89  >  Plates  XL, 
XIIL,  XIV.,  XVII.) 

This  is  a  type  of  illumination  which  can  safely 
be  attempted  by  one  who,  having  learnt  to  write, 
is  desirous  of  illuminating  his  writing ;  for  it  is 
the  direct  outcome  of  penmanship  (see  p.  204), 
and  consists  mainly  of  pen  flourishes,  or  semi- 
formal  lines  and  shapes  which  can  be  made  with 
a  pen,  suitably  applied  to  the  part  to  be  decorated. 
Its  effect  may  be  very  charming  and  restful  :  no 
colour  standing  out  as  in  a  positive  colour  scheme, 
no  individual  form  catching  the  eye  ;  but  the  whole 
having  a  richness  of  simple  detail  and  smooth  colour- 
ing more  or  less  intricate  and  agreeably  bewildering. 

It  may  be  compared  to  the  tooling  of  a  book- 
cover,  both  in  the  method  of  producing  it,  and  in 
its  effect.  A  book-binder  has  a  number  of  stamps 
which  bear  the  simplest  forms  and  symbols,  such  as 

197 


A  Theory  of  little  circles  and  "  leaves "  and  stars  and    curved 
Illumination    lines,  and  with  these  simple  elements  he  builds  up  a 
pleasant  "  design,"  which  he  tools,  usually  in  gold- 
leaf,  upon  the  cover. 

The  scribe  can  vary  the  forms  which  his  pen 
produces,  and  the  colours  which  he  gives  them, 
with  a  freedom  that  the  set  form  and  the  method 
of  using  the  binder's  tools  do  not  allow.  But 
the  skilled  penman  will  find  that  his  pen  (or,  at 
any  rate,  his  penmanship)  largely  determines  the 
forms  of  his  freest  flourishes  and  strokes,  and  that 
the  semi-formal  nature  of  such  ornament  demands 
a  certain  simplicity  and  repetition  of  form  and 
colour,  which  do  not  unduly  tax  his  skill  as  a 
craftsman. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  scribe  wishes  to 
illuminate  the  border  of  a  page  of  writing.  He 
may  choose  a  limited  number  of  simple,  pen-made 
forms  for  the  elements  of  his  design  ;  say,  a  circle, 
a  "  leaf,"  and  a  "  tendril,"  and  a  few  curved  flourishes 


FIG.  121. 


and  strokes  (fig.   121),  and  with   these  cover  the 
allotted  space  evenly  and  agreeably. 


198 


The       ornament     [ 
being       treated        as 
though     it     were     a 
sort  of  floral  growth, 
requires     a     starting 
point     or     "  root."     i 
The   initial    letter   is     I 
the  natural  origin  of 
the  border  ornament,     i 
the    stalk    of    which     ' 
generally  springs  from 
the  side  or  from  one 
of  the  extremities   of 
the  letter.    The  main 
stem  and  branches  are 
first     made     with    a 
very  free  pen,  forming 
a  skeleton  pattern  (fig. 
122). 

i, 

NOTE. — The  numbers  in      , 
the   diagram    indicate    the 
order  in  which  the  strokes      I 
were  made.     The  main  stem 
(in)  sweeps  over  and  occu- 
pies most  of  the  ground ;  the      ' 
secondary  stem  (222)  Occupies        j 
the    remainder ;    the   main 
branches  (333,  &c. )  make  the 
occupation  secure.  I 

I 
I 
I 
I 


A  Theory  of 
Illumination 


FIG.  122. 


I99 


A  Theory  of 
Illumination     I 


Next  the  minor 
branches  are  added 
to  cover  the  space 
evenly,  and  then  the 
flowers,  fruity  and  buds 
— made  up  of  com- 
binations of  the 
"  leaves,"  circles,  &c. 
— are  more  or  less 
evenly  disposed  in  the 
spaces  formed  by  the 
large,  round  curves 
at  the  ends  of  the 
branches  (fig.  123). 


FIG.  123. 


200 


The  "leaves"  are 
placed  all  over,  wher- 
ever there  is  con- 
venient room  for  them 
(just  as  the  leaves  of  a 
real  plant  are).  Then 
the  stalks  of  the  leaves 
are  added,  and,  lastly, 
the  interspaces  are 
filled  with  "tendrils," 
which  greatly  con- 
tribute to  the  pleasant 
intricacy  of  the  design 
(fig.  124). 


,    A  Theory  of 
1      Illumination 


FIG.  124. 


201 


A  Theory  of       Colour  Schemes. — The  safest  treatment  of  such  a  "  design  "  is 

Illumination     in  black  and  £old  (8ee  p>  l8?)'     The  leaves,  which  are  kept 

1     rather  flat,  may  be  outlined  after  gilding.     The  flowers,  &c., 

may  be  made  up  in  red  and  blue  (tempered  with  white  :  see  p. 

181).    This  is  the  colour  treatment  of  the  example,  Plate  XVII. 

If  the  leaves  are  green,  the  stem  and  outline  may  be  more 
delicately  drawn  in  pale  or  grey-brown  ink,  and  the  green 
may  be  a  delicate  pale  olive  or  grey-green.  (A  strong,  black 
stem  with  bright  green  leaves  is  apt  to  look  crude  and  hard. ) 
In  such  a  delicate  green  plant  border,  delicate  blue  and  red 
flowers,  and  one  or  two  rather  flat  gold  "  berries  "  (single,  or  in 
threes)  may  be  placed. 

A  very  effective  colour  decoration  of  a  much  simpler  type 
may  be  made  in  red  and  green  (or  blue)  pen-work — using  the 
pen  and  the  colours  with  which  the  Versal  letters  and  line- 
finishings  are  made.  A  red  flourished  stem  with  red  leaves  or 
tendrils,  and  green  berries  (or  leaves),  or  a  green  stem  with 
green  leaves  and  red  berries. 

A  floral  pattern  may  also  be  made  in  plain  burnished  gold — 
both  stem  and  leaves — not  outlined  (p.  187  &  Plate  XXII.). 

A  more  complex  decoration  resembling  the  "  floral 
filigree  "  has  a  "  solid  "  stern  in  light  or  dark  colour 
on  a  dark  or  light  ground  (or  on  a  gold  ground), 
as  suggested  in  the  rough  diagram,  fig.  120. 

The  examples  of  Italian  fifteenth-century  work 
in  Plates  XVIII.  and  XIX.  show  a  related  type  of 
illumination,  known  as  the  "  white  vine  pattern." 
Very  carefully  and  beautifully  drawn,  it  strongly 
suggests  natural  form. 

"NATURAL,  OR  LIMNER'S,*  ILLUMINATION" 
(See  also  pp.  213,  2IQ-2I,  227,  423-24,  426-28,  486 ; 
figs.  131^-141  ;  Plates  XV.,  XVI.,  XXIII.) 
This,  the  finest   type  of  illumination,  has  very 
great  possibilities ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  some 
craftsmen,  who  have  the  necessary  skill,  will  find 
an  opening  for  their  work  in  this  direction. 

*  NOTE. — Limning  strictly  means  Illuminating,  but  has  come 
to  imply  drawing  and  painting,  especially  of  portraits  and 
miniatures.  Here,  all  its  senses  are  intended. 

202 


Plate  XV.  is  a  thirteenth-century  example  of  the  A  Theory  of 
transition  from  the  "  barbaric  "  to  the  "  natural."    Illumination 
The  dragon-tailed  initial  with  its  wonderful  scroll- 
work and  "ivy-leaf"  being  the  perfection  of  bar- 
baric form,  carrying  brilliant  colour  and  serving  to 
support  and  frame  the  delicate  and  beautiful  draw- 
ing which  it  contains.1     But  in  the  drawing  itself 
the  skill  of  a  fine  illuminator  combines  with  the 
fancy   of  a   cunning   draughtsman    to   satisfy   an 
aesthetic  taste  and  appeal  to  the  imagination. 

Plate  XVI.  shows  a  rare,  and  singularly  beautiful, 
treatment  of  an  Italian  fourteenth-century  MS. 
decorated  with  plant  and  insect  forms  (p.  427). 

Plate  XXIII.  (modern)  show  a  border  of  wild  roses 
and  climbing  plants  :  the  colour  treatment  in  the 
original  is  very  brilliant  (see  p.  486). 

The  "  natural "  type  depends  very  much  on  the 
beauty  and  interest  of  its  form  ;  and  a  draughtsman 
before  he  had  become  an  illuminator,  might  be  con- 
tent to  decorate  MSS.  and  printed  books  with  pen 
drawings  only  faintly  coloured  or  tinted  ;  but  when 
he  had  mastered  the  limitations  which  the  craft 
would  impose  on  his  drawing  for  pure  and  bright 
colour,  there  is  no  degree  of  brilliance,  even  unto 
"  barbaric  splendour,"  which  he  might  not  lay 
upon  his  trained  and  delicate  forms. 

1  The  modern  illuminator,  having  no  tradition  for  making 
such  scroll-work,  would  find  that  natural  or  organic  forms — as 
of  trees  or  plants  (see  p.  zzi) — would  serve  the  same  end  and 
have  more  "  sweet  reasonableness"  in  modern  eyes.  Excellent 
scroll-work,  moreover,  might  be  formed  out  of  ornamental 
Capitals — if  sufficient  excuse  could  be  found  for  introducing 
them  :  a  large  flourished  L,  for  example,  could  be  made  exactly 
on  the  same  lines  as  the  pendant  and  scroll  in  Plate  XV. 
Narrow  gold  rods  also  may  be  used  in  a  border  to  support 
a  floral  growth,  or  as  frames  if  necessary  (compare  rules,  p.  364). 

203 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    ILLUMINATION  l 

The   Development   of  Illumination — Line-Finishings — 
Initial  Letters — Borders  &  Backgrounds. 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   ILLUMINATION 

The  De-      AN  art  or  craft  is  so  largely  dependent  on  the  tools 
velopment  of  and  materials  which  are  used  by  the  craftsman,  that 
Illumination    we  may  reasonably  say  that  it  begins  with  the  tools 
and  materials,  through  which  it  has  been  produced. 
Now,  "illumination"  can  be  traced  back  step  by 
step  to  simple  penmanship.     And  its  true  develop- 
ment is  most  graphically  sketched  by  Ruskin  ("  Lec- 
tures on  Art,"  No.  V.)  when  he  says — 

"  The  pen  .  .  .  is  not  only  the  great  Instrument  for  the 
Jinest  sketching,  but  its  right  use  is  the  foundation  of  the  art 
of  illumination.  .  .  .  Perfect  illumination  is  only  'writing 
made  lovely  ,•  .  .  .  But  to  make  •writing  itself  beautiful — to 
make  the  snueep  of  the  pen  lovely — is  the  true  art  of  illumina- 
tion ;  "  And  also  that  those  who  have  acquired  "  a  habit 
of  deliberate,  legible  and  lovely  penmanship  in  their  daily  use 
of  the  pen,  .  .  .  may  next  discipline  their  hands  into  the 
control  of  lines  of  any  length,  and,  finally,  add  the  beauty 
of  colour  and  form  to  the  flowing  of  these  perfect  lines." 


1  The  fteft  in  the  development    sketched   very  briefly  in  this 
chapter,  refer  both  to  the  past  history  of  the  art  of  illumination 
and  to  its  possible  revival  (see  Author's  preface,  p.  16). 
204 


LINE-FINISHINGS  The  De- 

Line-finishings  are  used  to  preserve  the  evenness  velopment  of 
of  the  text  when  lines  of  writing  fall  short.  When 
the  space  left  is  small,  or  occurs  in  the  middle  of  a  sen- 
tence^ a  quick  stroke  of  the  pen — often  a  continua- 
tion of  the  last  letter,  or  springing  from  it — is 
sufficient  (fig.  125) ;  but  where  there  are  many  and 
long  gaps  (as,  for  example,  in  a  psalter  at  the  ends 
of  the  verses),  they  may  be  filled  in  with  dots  (see 
Plate  VIII.)  or  flourishes  (a,  £,  c,  fig.  126)  either 
made  in  black  with  the  script  pen,  or  with  another 
pen,  in  colour  or  gold. 

Line-finishings  commonly  echo  the  treatment  of 
the  initials  (see  p.  181).  In  twelfth-century  MSS. 
long  delicate  flourishes  are  commonly  found,  in  red, 
blue,  or  green — matching  the  colours  of  the  Versals, 
and  probably  made  with  the  same  pen.  The  latter 
being  rather  finer  than  the  text  pen  keeps  these 
flourishes  from  appearing  too  prominent  (see  e,  fy 
fig.  126). 

Such  work  should  be  simple  and  characteristic 
pen-work,  showing  the  thicks  and  thins  and  crisp 
curves,  the  result  of  the  position  of  the  pen,  which 
is  usually  "slanted"  (see  p.  43). 

Bands  of  pen-made  "geometrical"  patterns — used 
with  rather  close  writing — may  be  very  simple  and 
direct,  though  appearing  pleasantly  elaborate  (see 
figs.  87  and  (g)  126,  Plate  XIV.,  and  pp.  215  &  25). 

INITIAL    LETTERS 

(See  also  pp.   16,  48,  112-14,   124,  134,  181,  188- 
193,  193-99,  211-15,  and  the  Collotype  Plates) 
The  development  of  Illumination  proper  was — 
and  still  is — bound  up  with  the  growth  and  decora- 
tion of  the  Initial  Letter. 

205 


The  De- 

velopment  of 
Illumination 


ftne-fuiisHi 

pt 

ot-lcrminal 


e—'- 

W"  V" 


m 


spread 


Some- 


206 


FIG.  125. 


1 


tnc-fihishin 


dots  and  flourish** 
thus  *•*  A  A  •**  •••« 


The  De- 
velopment of 
Illumination 


with,  5tnaUerpen  : 

^  iTiu»M¥t*iYrr»rttr4»^"     WACk 


#S<*S&X#^^ 


FIG.  126. 


207 


The  De-  The  first  step  in  this  development  is  the  mastery 
velopment  of  of  the  pen-made  Versal  letter,  and  the  right  treat- 
Illumination  ment  of  simple  coloured  capitals  (see  chapters  VII., 
VIIL,  and  X.).  The  next  step  is  their  elaboration. 
The  simplest  ornamental  treatment  is  found  in  the 
flourishing  of  a  terminal  of  the  initial  letter  (fig.  150), 
or  the  arrangement  of  the  remaining  letters  of  the 
word  inside  or  beside  it.  Pen  flourishes  may  consist 
of  the  simplest  curved  and  zigzag  strokes  (sometimes 
springing  from  the  actual  letter  :  see  p.  251),  ending 
with  a  "  twirl "  of  the  pen  in  a  loop  or  a  "  bud  " 
(figs.  1 50,  79) ;  or  they  may  strike  out  a  sort  of  formal 
floral  pattern,  filling  or  surrounding  the  initial  (fig. 
92),  and  such  a  pattern  in  its  turn  may  spring 
from  the  letter  into  the  margin,  and  grow  into  a 
complete  "illuminated  border"  (see  p.  199). 

Hollow  Letters. — A  large  capital  is  often  made 
hollow,  primarily  with  a  view  to  lightening  its  ap- 
pearance, which  might  be  rather  heavy  if  the  letter 
were  made  solid  (p.  119).  The  hollow — which  is 
commonly  left  plain  (i.e.  the  colour  of  the  paper  or 
parchment) — may  be  a  mere  line,  straight  or  curved 
or  zigzag  (fig.  189),  or  a  pattern,  or  lettering  (fig. 
89).  Sometimes  it  is  made  large  and  filled  in  with  a 
contrasting  colour,  leaving  a  white  line,  however, 
between  the  two  colours.  And  sometimes  half  the 
letter  is  made  in  one  colour,  and  the  other  half  (on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  hollow  centre)  is  made  in  a 
contrasting  colour.  A  "  hollow  "  letter  (especially 
if  very  large)  may  be  strengthened  and  improved  by 
a  filling  of  colour  or  ornament.  (Addenda,  p.  25.) 

"  Woven  "  Forms.-^-A  simple  form  of  ornament 
(related  to  "  Basket  work ")  which  effectually 
strengthens  the  construction  of  a  hollow  letter — 
without  impairing  its  lightness — consists  in  a  cross- 

208 


ing  and  "  weaving  "  or  knotting  of  its  actual  parts      The  De- 
(fig.  127).  velopment  of 

Illumination 


Woven? 


. 

uuwvm  ornament;  oil 
in  burnished  gold  mtJi  «tb 
<nttltrt*  and  barulS  acmSS  the 
thm  \xmbsefe. 


FIG.  127. 

The  elaborated  ^?  (in  fig.  127)15  from  a  loth 
or  nth  century  MS.  (Brit.  Museum,  Egerton, 
608).  The  Initial  and  its  inwoven  ornament  cut 
up  the  background  into  a  number  of  distinct  parts 
(distinctly  coloured).  Note  also  that  the  entire 
background  is  contained  by  the  Initial. 

The  "  knot "  (fig.  127),  or  a  basket-work  orna- 
ment, is  sometimes  used  as  an  arbitrary  starting- 
point  for  a  filigree  border  (see  p.  428)  where  an 
initial  is  lacking. 

Variety  in  Initials. — The  sizes  and  styles  of  the 
initials  which  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  through- 
out the  book  vary  very  slightly  or  not  at  all.  Gene- 
rally, the  more  important  the  division  which  the 
o  209 


The  De-  initial  marks,  the  larger  the  initial  and  the  more 
velopment  of  ornate  (p.  298).  A  slight  complexity  in  the  open- 
Illumination  ing  letter  or  word  of  a  book  does  not  seriously 
interfere  with  the  readableness  of  the  book  as  a 
whole.  The  general  rule  is  followed  that  the  greater 
the  number  of  (decorative)  forms  the  plainer  they  are  kept 
(see  p.  126),  and  if  a  book  contained  an  "initial" 
on  every  page,  it  would  be  both  an  artistic  and  a 
working  economy  (if  there  were  many  pages)  to 
make  the  majority  of  them  rather  plain. 

But  however  simple  the  treatment  of  the  initials 
may  be,  there  is  still  room  for  considerable  variety 
of  form  or  ornament  or  type— is  "round"  or  "square" 
letters  (see  fig.  80,  and  especially  Plate  XL).  Such 
variety  is  found  in  the  best  work  ;  it  adds  a  liveliness 
and  charm  which  are  quite  lacking  where  there  is 
unnecessary  or  mechanical  repetition. 

"Lombardlc"  versus  Roman  Capitals. — The  round, 
fat  letters  which  are  known  as  "  Lombardic  "  (see 
fig.  i,  and  Plates  XV.,  XVII.)  have  been  generally 
used  for  "  illuminated  initials  "  in  Northern  Europe 
since  the  thirteenth  century.  But — though  they  are 
capable  of  very  beautiful  treatment  —  they  are 
rather  doubtful  models  for  us  to  follow.  The  fact 
that  such  letters  will  always  pack  neatly  into  a 
square  niche  or  background — though  an  obvious 
convenience — is  not  an  unmixed  advantage.  And 
the  majority  of  examples  show  a  debased  type  of 
Letters — often  so  unlike  their  originals,  and  so  like 
one  another,  as  to  be  scarcely  readable.  For  the 
sake  of  readableness  the  stems  should  be  made 
longer  (fig.  128).  The  more  slender  "Roman" 
type  of  initial,  commonly  used  in  Italy  (Plate 
XVIIL),  is  in  every  way  a  more  legible  letter. 
The  Roman  Alphabet  still  remains  the  finest 

210 


model,  and  it  is  better  that  fine  lettering  should  be      The  De- 
velopment of 
Illumination 


TJiayym  shewing  the  toidaity  tx>  cmfiisum  be- 
"forms  oPdiis  ^pc^&ol5c> 

oca 

a  5cvcre^*r-  Kj>c  in  \vHicH  tKctetttryarc  m^rt 
:  their  cnaractmstics  bcuurrnorc  marlccb 


FIG.  128. 

almost  too  slender  and  delicate,  than  that  it  should 
be  at  all  heavy  or  clumsy. 

BORDERS   &    BACKGROUNDS 

The  illuminated  border  was  originally  an  extension 
or  branching  out  of  the  initial  decoration.  It 
commonly  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  left-hand 
margin,  and  from  thence  it  extended  into  the  head1 
or  foot  margin  (or  into  both),  or  completely  sur- 
rounded the  text,  and  even  the  eight  margins  of  a 

1  Where  it  is  possible  it  is  desirable  to  mark  the  top  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  "  page"  (and  also  the  lower  corner)  by  a 
branch,  flourish,  bud,  or  flower  (see  Plates  XIX.,  XXII.).  A 
top  left-hand  corner  appearing  vacant  or  rounded  off  is  apt  to 
weaken  the  whole  effect  (see  p.  134). 

211 


The  De- 
velopment of 
Illumination 


NOTE. — This  diagram  suggests  a  simple 
treatment  of  an  initial  word  in  colours  and 
gold.  The  graphic  method  employed  by 
heralds  for  indicating  these — by  lines  and 
dots — is  here  discarded  for  the  stronger  con- 
trasts of  black,  white,  and  "  grey«" 

The  letters  contained  inside  the  initial  P 
are  kept  distinct — (i)  crimson  ("grey"  in 
diagram)  being  used  solely  for  the  patches  of 
ground  adjoining  the  (gold)  letters,  and  for 
filling  the  hollow  part  of  the  (gold}  P,  the 
whole  word  stands  out  in  crimson  and  gold; 
(2)  the  floral  pattern  is  also  in  gold,  but  it 
does  not  cover  or  hide  any  part  of  the  word. 
The  remaining  ground  is  green  inside  and 
blue  outside  the  P.  The  dots  *.*  •••  are  in  red 
on  the  green  ground,  in  cream  with  a  red 
centre  dot  on  the  blue. 

The  gold  throughout  is  outlined  black,  and  the  blue  ground  has 
a  black  outline,  separated  from  it  by  a  -white  line 

212 


FIG.  129. 


complete  opening  are  sometimes  covered  with  illumi-      The  De- 
nation.     In  late  and  modem  usage  the   border  is  velopment  of 
frequently  separated  from  the  initial,  constituting  a    Illumination 
"  framing  border." l 

In  some  MSS.  there  are  two  side-borders  on  a 
page,  one  springing  from  the  Initials  on  the  left, 
the  other  sending  branches  into  the  gaps  on  the 
right  (see  Plates  XVII.,  XVI.).  In  some  cases  the 
two  pages  of  an  opening  are  balanced  by  a  side- 
border  in  each  of  the  wide  side  margins  (p.  428). 

Backgrounds  of  Initials  (see  pp.  188-193,  421-23) 
and  borders  are  treated  very  similarly.  It  may  be 
noted  that,  where  a  sotid-stem  pattern  cuts  up  the 
ground  into  small  pieces,  these  are  often  painted  in 
different  colours — commonly  red,  and  green,  and  blue 
(see  pp.  209,  430).  And  the  groups  of  dots  (fig.  129) 
— in  white  or  other  colours — may  fill  the  interstices 
of  a  background,  putting  the  finishing  touch  to  the 
even  covering  and  pleasant  intricacy  of  the  decora- 
tion (comp.  p.  201).  Or  little  flowers  and  leaves  may 
be  used  instead — growing  from  a  thin  (white)  stem 
which  appears  to  twine  throughout  the  main  pattern 
— just  as  the  smaller  plants  in  a  hedge  creep  and 
twine  among  the  larger  stems.  There  is  no  better 
model  in  nature  for  the  illuminator  than  a  country 
hedgerow. 

1  Framing  borders,  or  borders  which  surround  the  text,  may  be 
allowed  nearly  to  fill  the  entire  marginal  space. 


2I3 


CHAPTER   XIII 


IN    ILLUMINATION 

**  Design  " — Elementary  Patterns  in  Decoration — Scale 
&  Scope  of  Decoration — Of  "  Designing  "  Manu- 
scripts, Generally. 

"DESIGN" 

"Design "in  PERHAPS  the  nearest  right  definition  of  "design" 
Illumination  is  "  contrivance  " — applied  to  the  actual  doing  of  the 
work,  rather  than  to  the  work  when  done  :  "  de- 
coration^ (when  that  is  the  sense  intended)  is  a 
safer  word,1  because  it  implies  "  of  something"  And 
generally  that  "  something  "  lies  at  the  root  of  the 
matter.  For  example :  "illuminated  initials"  and 
"  illluminated  borders,"  so  called,  are  really  illumi- 
nzting :  they  are  properly  a  decoration  of  manuscript 
or  print. 

To  consider  a  "  piece-of-decoration  "  as  a  thing 
existing  apart  from  that  which  it  decorates,  as 
something  drawn  or  copied,  and,  so  to  speak,  stuck 
on  to  the  finished  work,  is  as  wwnatural  as  it  would 
be  to  contemplate  the  flame-of-a-candle  as  a  thing 
apart  from  the  candle. 

1  "Design"  has  been  associated  so  much  with  bad  cleverness 
in  the  artist,  or  clever  badness  in  the  natural  man,  that  if  we 
use  the  word  in  a  good  sense  it  is  apt  to  be  misunderstood. 

Decoration  is  derived  from  decut,  decor  =.  comeliness  or  grace. 
214 


The  finest  decoration  is  really  part  of  the  work  " Design"  in 
itself,  and  may  be  described  as  the  finishing  touches    Illumination 
given  directly  to  the  work  by  the  tools  which  are  pro- 
perly employed  on  it. 

The  illuminator  has,  as  a  rule,  to  decorate  a 
given  manuscript  with  pen  or  brush  work — it  may 
be  with  the  simplest  pen  flourishes,  or  with  the 
most  elaborate  figure  "design."  How  to  make 
that  illumination  part  of  the  work,  he  can  learn 
only  by  patient  practice  and  by  careful  handling 
of  his  tools. 


ELEMENTARY    PATTERNS    IN    DECORATION 

Nearly  all  simple  Decoration  consists  of  a  com- 
paratively limited  number  of  elements — simple  forms 
and  pure  colours — which  are  built  up  into  more 
complex  forms  to  occupy  an  allotted  space.  A 
primitive  type  of  such  built-up  decoration  is  seen 
in  the  dotted  patterns,  which  are  found  in  every 
age — in  the  remains  of  the  most  ancient  art,  and 
in  the  shell  decorations  which  children  make  on 
the  sands  at  the  present  day.  Examples  of  dotted 
"  backgrounds  "  in  the  "  Durham  Book  "  are  shown 
in  fig.  130  (a  and  b).  Chequers  and  Diapers — in 
which  two  or  more  elements  are  employed — are  re- 
lated patterns.1  (See  also  Addenda,  p.  25  &  fig.  1910.) 

A  simple  way  of  filling  a  band  (or  long  narrow 


1  Chequers  in  colours  and  gold  were  largely  used  in  the  four- 
teenth-century MSS.  for  backgrounds  in  miniatures.  There  is 
an  example  of  very  beautiful  heraldic  diapering  (in  enamel)  on 
the  shield  of  William  de  Valence,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  in  West- 
minster Abbey  (A.D.  1296).  On  p.  336  of  this  book  there  is 
a  diagram  of  a  very  fine  shield  bearing  a  diapered  chequer. 

215 


"  Design  "in  space)  is  to  run  a  zigzag  line  along  it  (r).  This 
Illumination  may  be  treated  either  as  a  line  or  wavy  stem, 
which  may  send  out  buds,  leaves,  or  flowers  into 
the  spaces  (^),  or  as  two  series  of  triangles  which 
may  be  "countercharged  (f).1  A  second  zigzag, 
cutting  the  first,  would  produce  two  series  of 
triangles  and  a  central  row  of  lozenges  (d).  And 
it  is  not  a  very  great  step  from  this  to  the  "  twist " 
where  the  two  lines  pass  over  and  under,  the  lines 
being  made  "  solid  "  in  white  or  gold  on  a  coloured 
background  (ey  fig.  130).  The  main  difference 
appears  to  be  that  while  the  one  is  of  the  nature 
of  an  abstract  form,  the  other  suggests  a  concrete 
form,  such  as  might  be  made  with  twisted  cords  or 
rods. 

These  primitive  patterns  never  become  anti- 
quated ;  they  are  still  the  root  forms  of  "  design," 
and  the  pleasant  even  covering  of  a  given  space  by 
simple  elements — which  is  their  metier — accounts 
for  much  of  the  unconscious  pleasure  which  we 
take  in  good  bricklaying  or  sewing  or  writing,  and 
in  a  thousand  things,  where  "  many  littles  make  a 
mickle." 

For  their  decorative  possibilities  in  Illumination 
we  can  experiment  in  the  most  delightful  way — 
framing  our  writing  with  bands  of  countercharged 
triangles  in  burnished  gold,  and  blue  and  white,  or 
with  golden  zigzags  on  a  blue  ground,  or  chequer- 
ing backgrounds  with  scarlet  and  blue,  and  trying 
a  hundred  and  one  other  ways  (p.  197).  Such 
patterns  have  been  made  the  most  of  in  Heraldry, 


1  If  the  triangles  were  countercharged  in  colour  and  colour 
e.g.  red  and  blue — the  zigzag  would  be  made  ivhite,  black,  or 
ld,  to  separate  and  harmonise  the  colours  (see  pp.  182-83). 

216 


S2- 


IfV  X1 


:!*  (<0  'S'.K'X'i 

ii:  l    HVA'^ 
?k 


•ii  Durham 
t  Book  J> 
^i  (routfi 


Simple  modes  of  filling  a  bdt  or  tend 
witti  Vine  ornament    &  (c.)  (4-)   C^-) 


(m.)  (n.>    ^ 

ELEMENTARY^ 
7A7TtJVWS  &S 
US£D  W  SIMP1E  T5ICORVT10M 


"Design"  in 
Illumination 


FIG.  130. 


"  Design "  in  an  art  which  in  itself  would  form  a  foundation  for 
Illumination    a  splendid  and  complete  scheme  of  Illumination. 


SCALE    &    SCOPE    OF    DECORATION 

Penmanship. — Many  of  the  most  beautiful  MSS. 
were  made  in  pen-work  throughout.1  And  it  is  well 
that  the  penman  should  stick  to  his  pen  as  much 
as  is  possible.  Not  only  does  it  train  his  hand  to 
make  pen  ornaments,  the  forms  of  which  are  in 
keeping  with  the  writing,  but  it  helps  to  keep  the 
decoration  proportionate  in  every  way.  It  is  an 
excellent  plan  for  the  beginner  to  use  the  writing- 
pen  for  plain  black  capitals  or  flourishes,  and  to 
make  all  other  decoration  with  similar  or  slightly 
finer  pens  than  the  one  used  for  the  writing. 

Again,  the  direct  use  of  the  pen  will  prevent 
much  mischievous  "  sketching."  Sketching  is  right 
in  its  proper  place,  and,  where  you  know  exactly  what 
you  wish  to  do,  it  is  useful  to  sketch  in  lightly  the 
main  parts  of  a  complex  "  design "  so  that  each 
part  may  receive  a  fair  portion  of  the  available 
space.  But  do  not  spoil  your  MS.  by  experimental 
pencilling  in  trying  to  find  out  what  you  want  to 
do.  Experiments  are  best  made  roughly  with  a 
pen  or  brush  on  a  piece  of  paper  laid  on  the  avail- 
able space  in  the  MS.,  or  by  colouring  a  piece  of 
paper  and  cutting  it  out  to  the  pattern  desired  and 
laying  it  on.  Such  means  are  also  used  to  settle 
small  doubts  which  may  arise  in  the  actual  illumi- 

1  A    most    beautiful    twelfth-century   MS.,    known    as    the 
"  Golden   Psalter,"  has  many  gold  (decorated)  Initials,   Red, 
Blue,  and  Green  (plain)  Versals  and  Line-Finishings,  every  part 
being  pen-made  throughout  the  book. 
2l8 


nating — as  to  whether — and  where — some  form  or  "  Design  "  in 
some  colour  should  be  placed  on  the  page.  Illumination 

Filigree,  Floral,  &  other  Decoration. — The  ac- 
quired skill  of  the  penman  leads  very  naturally  to 
a  pen  flourishing  and  decoration  of  his  work,  and 
this  again  to  many  different  types  of  filigree  decora- 
tion more  or  less  resembling  floral  growths  (see 
figs.  125,  126;  pp.  197-202;  Plates  XL,  XVIL). 

Now  all  right  decoration  in  a  sense  arranges 
itself,  and  we  may  compare  the  right  action  of 
the  "  designer's "  mind  to  that  necessary  vibration 
or  "  directive  "  motion  which  permeates  the  universe 
and,  being  communicated  to  the  elements,  enables 
the  various  particles  to  fall  into  their  right  places : 
as  when  iron  filings  are  shaken  near  a  magnet 
they  arrange  themselves  in  the  natural  curves  of 
the  magnetic  field,  or  as  a  cello  bow,  drawn  over 
the  edge  of  a  sand-sprinkled  plate,  gathers  the  sand 
into  beautiful  "  musical  patterns." 

And  to  most  natural  growths,  whether  of  plants 
or  ornament,  this  principle  of  self-arrangement 
seems  common,  that  they  spread  out  evenly  and 
occupy  to  the  greatest  extent  possible  their  allotted  space. 
Branches  and  leaves  most  naturally  grow  away  from  * 

the  stem  and  from  each  other,  and  oppose  elbows  and 
points  in  every  direction.  In  this  way  the 
growth  fits  its  place,  looking  secure  and  at  rest 
— while  in  disconnected  parallels,  or  branches 
following  their  stem,  there  is  often  insecurity  and 
unrest.1  (See  also  Addenda,  p.  25.) 

For   example  :    a  circular  space   is   filled   more 

1  In  a  spiral  the  stem,  following  itself,  may  be  tied  by  an  inter- 
lacing spiral,  or  the  turns  of  the  spiral  may  be  held  at  rest  by 
the  interlocking  of  the  leaves  (see  G,  Plate  XXII.). 

2I9 


"  Design"  in  decoratively    by  a   cross  (ay  fig.    131)  than   by  a 

Illumination    contained   circle ;   a  square   is   better   filled    by   a 

"  lozenge  "  or  a  circle  (b  and  c)  than  by  a  smaller 


FIG.  131. 

square  set  square  and  parallel  (compare  the  diaper- 
ing of  the  chequers  in  fig.  191  a).  A  circular  or 
square  space  might  be  filled  on  this  principle  with 
a  filigree  arrangement  such  as  is  suggested  by  (dy 
fig.  131).  Note. — In  the  case  of  two  curves  in  the 
ornament  touching  (either  internally  or  externally) 
they  may  be  linked  at  this  point  by  a  (gold)  band 
or  circle  or  lozenge  (ey  fig.  131,  see  also  Plate  XVII.). 

Miniatures  and  Drawing. — In  drawing  and  paint- 
ing, the  difficulty  which  is  apt  to  beset  the  illumi- 
nator is  how  to  strike  a  balance  between  "  Natural- 
ism "  and  "  Conventionalism,"  so  called.  While 
the  only  criterion  is  good  taste,  we  may  be  guided 
by  certain  general  principles. 

To  limit  the  number  of  elements  in  a  "  design  " 
— whether  of  form  or  colour — is  nearly  always  an 

220 


advantage  (pp.  177,  1 8 1,  198).  And  the  miniaturist,  "Design"  in 
while  depicting  the  nature  of  a  plant,  usually  Illumination 
limits  the  number  of  its  branches  and  leaves  and  shades 
of  colour.  Every  part  of  a  "  design  "  should  be 
drawn  clearly  and  distinctly,  and  in  proportion  to 
the  whole.  The  miniaturist,  therefore,  usually 
draws  in  careful  outline  every  branch  and  leaf,  making 
the  whole  proportional  with  the  MS.  which  it  decorates. 
In  fact,  the  qualities  of  good  illumination  are 
the  same  as  the  qualities  of  good  writing — Simplicity ', 
DistinctivenesSy  Proportion,  &>c.  (see  p.  239).  And 
the  "  convention  "  (here  literally  a  coming  together) 
required  is  only  such  as  will  make  the  drawing  and 
colouring  of  the  illumination  and  the  form  and 
colour  of  the  writing  go  well  together. 

NOTE. — Figs.  135  to  141  (woodcuts — with  part  of  the  text — 
from  a  Herbal  printed  at  Venice  in  1571  [p.  369])  and  figs.  132, 
133,  and  1340  (wood  engravings  by  T.  Bewick,  printed  1791) 
are  suggested  as  examples  of  drawing — of  plants  and  animals — 
suitable  for  book-decoration  (see  also  figs.  134^,  <r,  d  ;  Plates  XV., 
XVI.,  XXIII.,  and  notes  on  "limner's  illumination,"  p.  203). 

OF  "DESIGNING"  MANUSCRIPTS  GENERALLY 

Cultivate  the  simplest  and  most  direct  methods, 
and  make  "  rules  of  thumb  "  :  for  work-a-day  use,  to 
carry  you  successfully  through  all  routine  or  ordi- 
nary difficulties,  so  that  your  hand  will  be  trained 
and  your  mind  free  and  ready  to  deal  with  the 
harder  problems  when  they  arise. 

1  As  an  example  of  a  good  "rule  of  thumb,"  use  the  ruled  Una 
of  a  manuscript  as  a  scale  for  other  measurements  and  proportions ,  leaving 
one,  two,  three,  or  more  of  the  line-spaces  for  capitals,  orna- 
ments, &c. :  you  have  this  scale — as  it  were,  a  "  ready  reckoner  " 
— present  on  every  page,  and  following  it  enables  you  more  easily 
to  make  the  decoration  agree  and  harmonise  with  the  written 
text  and  with  the  book  as  a  whole  (see  p.  128  &  figs.  89,  91,  71). 

221 


"Design"  in        Use  a  limited  number  of  pure,  bright  colours, 
Illumination    and  keep  your  work  clean,  neat,  and  definite. 

Go  straight  ahead,  trusting  to  workman-like 
methods,  and  not  calculating  overmuch.  Do  the 
work  in  a  regular  order,  settling,  first,  the  general 
scheme,  the  size  of  the  book,  the  writing,  and  the 
margins ;  then  when  you  are  ready — 

1.  Prepare  the  sheets  (see  pp.  99,  no,  167). 

2.  Write  the  text — leaving  spaces  for  decoration. 
,,,  .     (a)  The  coloured  writing. 

3'     . ]  te(£)  The  coloured  capitals. 

~~(c)  The  line-finishings. 
,..        (#)  The  Initials.      1  Following  a  regular 

4*.     l  1-  (b)  Line-finishings.  Border  in  the  various 
nate      (c)  The  Borders.     J  processes  involved. 

5.  Bind  the  book  (p.  346),  or  have  it  bound,  in 
order  to  make  a  real  and  finished  piece  of  work. 

Practise  an  artistic  economy  of  time  and  space  : 
usually  the  quicker  you  write  the  MS.  the  better 
it  is.  Allow  sufficient  margins  to  make  the  book 
readable  and  handsome,  but  not  so  wide  as  to  make 
it  appear  fanciful.  Allow  sufficient  ornament,  not 
overloading  the  book  with  it.  Let  the  ornament 
be  of  a  type  suited  to  the  book  and  to  the  subject — 
not  too  painstaking  or  elaborate  in  an  ordinary  MS. ; 
not  too  hasty  and  slight  in  an  important  work. 

Endeavour  to  strike  a  balance  between  what 
may  be  called  "  practical "  and  "  ornamental "  con- 
siderations :  an  illuminated  MS.  is  not  meant  to  be 
entirely  "practical,"  but  it  is  a  greater  failure  if 
made  entirely  "  ornamental."  Let  the  text  be 
readable  in  every  sense,  and  let  the  ornament 
beautify  it  :  there  should  be  give  and  take,  as  it 
were,  and  that  most  desirable  quality  — "  sweet 
reasonableness." 

222 


84       HISTORY  OF  QUADRUPEDS. 


"Design  "in 
Illumination 


THE      SPRINGER. 

The  White-Antelope,  which  is  fuppofed  to  be  the  fame 
with  the  Pygarg,  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Numbers,  is 
an  inhabitant  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  it  is 
called  the  Spring-bok ;  and  is  to  be  feen  in  herds  of  fe- 
iveral  thoufands,  covering  the  plains  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
reach.  Sparrman  fays,  that,  having  (hot  at  a  large  herd 
of  them,  they  formed  a  line,  and  immediately  made  a 
circular  movement,  as  if  to  furround  him ;  but  after- 
tvards  flew  off  in  different  directions. 

The  height  of  this  beautiful  creature  is  two  feet  and  9 

FIG.  132. 

223 


"Design"  in 
Illumination 


HISTORY  OF  QJMDRUPEDS.       97 


THE  CHEVROTAIN  AND  MEMINNA, 

The  Chevrotain,  or  little  Guinea  Deer,  is  the  fmalleft 
>f  all  the  Antelope  kind,  the  leaft  of  all  cloven-footed 
juadrupeds,  and,  we  may  add,  the  moft  beautiful,  ltd 
ore  legs,  at  the  fmalleft  part,  are  not  much  thicker  than 
i  tobacco-pipe ;  it  is  not  more  than  feven  inches  in 
leight,  and  about  twelve  from  the.  point  of  the  nofe  to 
he  infertion  of  the  tail ;  its  ears  are  broad  ;  and  its 
lorns,  which  are  flraight,  and  fcarcely  two  inches  long, 
ire  black  and  mining  as  jet ;  the  colour  of  the  hair  is  a 
eddifh-brown  -9  in  fome  a  beautiful  yellow,  very  fliort 
nd  glofiy. 

Thefe  elegant  little  creatures  are  .rlativcs  of  Senegal 
nd  the  hottefl  parts  of  Africa  *  they  are  likewife  found 
n  India,  and  in  many  of  the  iflands  adjoining  to  thai 
.aft  continent. 

FIG.  133. 

224 


Design"  in 
Illumination 


"Design"  in 
Illumination 


226 


FIG.  134  b. 


"  The  intricacies  of  a  natural 
scene  (fig.  134  a — after  Bewick) 
may  be  simplified  when  rendered 
in  such  a  simple  medium  as  the 
pen  drawings  of  a  MS.  (comp. 
fig.  134  b).  Figs.  134  c  &  dare 
old  examples  of  strong,  simple 
drawing.  Students  should  prac- 
tise themselves  by  translating 
figs.  132,  133  into  fine,  Quill- 
pen  drawings."— (N.  R.) 


"  Design  "  in 
Illumination 


FIG.  I34<r. 

(This  and  fig.  134  d  are 
copies  from  a  thirteenth  cen- 
tury MS.  in  the  possession 
of  Air.  Yates- Thompson.) 


r  tupuarmoptietaajPi 


"Design"  in    ARVNDO,  Grzcis,  K« ^Mf.]  Arabian,  Cafib.] 
Illumination         nunis,  2&/>r.]  Hifpanis,  Caw.]  GaJlis, 

A  R  V  N  D  O  . 


228 


FIG,  135. — THE  REED. 


ASPARAGVS    SVLVESTRIS. 


"Design"  in 
Illumination 


,nec  valetiprcs  vires  habent.  C^terum  Cor- 

FIG.  136. — ASPARAGUS. 

229 


"Design"  in      j.]  Hifpanis,  Lcnteyas.] 

Illumination 


LENS 


230 


FIG.  137.— THE  LENTIL. 


VITII  vinifera,  Graccis,  Atunxor  otv9$<>po<.]  Itali$i 
bibus, ./farm  Kafm>  feu Karm.]  Gecmanis, Vueln 

VJTIS    VINIPERA. 


"Design"  in 
Illumination 


FIG.  138.— THE  VINE. 


23I 


" Design "  in 
Illumination 


CARYOPHILLT    FLORES 
DOMESTICl  . 


Jf,aut  auuraci  decode  poti.  AfTeruantur  faecharo,  perinr*  ac  rp- 

FIG.  139.— THE  CARNATION. 
232 


P^ONIA    FOEMfNA. 


"  Design  "in 

Illumination 


m,  &  renum,  &  vcficq  dolorcs  decora  in  vino  aluum  fiflic . 
^mcnlcs  firtuncdcccm^utduodecimpotae^  vinoauflcrot 


FIG.  140.— THE  PEONY. 


233 


"Design"  in 
Illumination        A  . 


P  E  R  5  I  CA 


C  repcriuntur 
rnr.n  rubcnt, 
aJgcnt,  alifvi- 
lu.aha  fangui- 
.aliaduracina 
more  lint  pul- 
ndiducamur. 
ia  nunpcrfua, 
um  ficu-tn  re- 
ttur.  Suntetii 
hygdalam  dul- 
%  Amygdala  ap 

A  . 

ft  fohts  Amyg 
lilibus,quem- 
>USV  quamuis 
tirpurafccntcs 
oatcnes  fragi- 
tillcs,  necalte 
^  fit.quod  hare 
cat  ,  fie  cadat  . 

S  . 

%  in  Italia,fed 
cuaprouenit. 

T  ES  . 
reccm  habcnt 
1.  Alioqtu  fa- 

in cdicamen- 
ocms,nempe 

fuum,  huini- 
r  icmpcric-' 
5. 
cohibent,  ftd 


*)>fluxioncs  i\ 

unu&  qujc  fa- 

iFlorcs  re- 

a  folumaluii 

uonc»  »]uoq; 
onun  aquam 
f^uc  r«;rotantium  incommodo .  Lacnr>'ma  arborjs  datur  ex  plantaginis , 

ad  fan^utms  raeftjoneJ  .  rufliemibus  \t  rb  ,  &  anhelciis  ex  Tufl»lagin*$ 
jicnro  JHifit  quoty;  ad  raucrdinnn,  ^c  artcna'  impedimenta.  Datnr  calcu- 
P-»*H  Auilimoixuiii,duacuxu  drachmarum  ponderer  »—«.;-.  f~n*  JJii- 


. 
Recrntia  folia  illi- 


FIG.  141.— THE  PEACH. 


234 


PART   II 
LETTERING 


PART    II 
LETTERING 

CHAPTER   XIV 

GOOD    LETTERING SOME   METHODS  OF  CON- 
STRUCTION   &    ARRANGEMENT 

Good  Models — The  Qualities  of  Good  Lettering — Sim- 
plicity —  Distinctiveness  —  Proportion  —  Beauty  of 
Form — Beauty  of  Uniformity — Right  Arrangement 
— Setting  Out  &  Fitting  In — "Massed  Writing" 
&  "Fine  Writing" — Even  Spacing — Theory  & 
Practice. 

GOOD    MODELS 

IF  lettering  is  to  be  rightly  constructed  and 
arranged,  the  study  of  good  models  is  essential. 
Some  of  the  writing  and  lettering  in  the  old  MSS., 
and  the  letters  used  on  various  old  tombstones  and 
brasses,  weeded  of  archaisms,  will  be  found  almost 
perfect  models.  Yet  to  select  one  of  these  from 
the  many  which  are  "  more  or  less  "  good,  requires 
much  discrimination. 

It  is  suggested  below  that  the  essential  virtues 
of  good  lettering  are  readableness^  beauty,  and  char- 
acter. If,  then,  we  can  discover  some  of  the  under- 
lying qualities  which  make  for  these,  our  choice 
will  at  least  be  better  considered,  and  instead  of 

237 


Good 

Lettering — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


Good 
Lettering — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


forming  our  "  style  "  on  the  first  type  of  letter  that 
pleases,  we  shall  found  our  work  on  a  good  model, 
full  of  possibilities  of  development. 

The  Roman  Capital  (Chap.  XV.). — The  ancestor 
of  all  our  letters  is  in  undisputed  possession  of  the 
first  place  :  but  it  is  open  to  comparatively  few  to 
make  a  practical  study  of  its  monumental  forms  by 
means  of  cutting  inscriptions  in  stone  with  a  chisel. 

The  Pen-formed  letters  are  more  easily  practised, 
and  the  mastery  of  the  pen  acquired  in  the  practice 
of  a  root  form — such  as  the  half-uncial — is  the  key 
to  the  majority  of  alphabets  (which  are  pen  de- 
veloped) and  to  those  principles  underlying  the 
right  construction  and  arrangement  of  lettering, 
which  it  is  our  business  to  discover. 

Doubtless  a  "  school "  of  lettering  might  be 
founded  on  any  fine  type,  and  a  beautiful  alphabet 
or  fine  hand  might  be  founded  on  any  fine  inscrip- 
tion :  but  the  practical  student  of  penmanship  may 
be  sure  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  lettering  which 
would  be  useful  to  any  craftsman  concerned  with 
letters,  be  he  printer,  book-illustrator,  engraver,  or 
even  inscription  carver. 

THE    QUALITIES    OF    GOOD    LETTERING 

The  first  general  virtue  of  lettering  is  readable- 
nessy  the  second,  fitness  for  a  given  Use.  And  the 
rational  basis  of  the  following  summary  is  the 
assumption  that  such  fitness  is  comprised  in  beauty 
and  character^  and  that  a  given  piece  of  lettering 
having  readablenessy  beauty^  and  character  has  the 
essential  virtues  of  good  lettering. 

The  qualities  on  which  these  virtues  seem  chiefly 
to  depend,  and  their  special  significations  in  the  case 
of  plain  writing,  may  be  set  forth  as  follows  : — 

238 


THE    QUALITIES    OF    GOOD    WRITING 
READABLENESS 


I.   Simplicity: 


2.    Distinctiveness . 


3.    Proportion, 


4.    Beauty  of  Form  : 


5.    Beauty    of    Uni- 
formity : 


6.    Beauty  of 

Arrangement  : 


7.  Essential  qualities 
of  (Hand  and 
Pen)  -work  : 

S.   Freedom  : 

9.    Pirtonality : 


As  having  no  unnecessary  parts 
(and  as  being  simply  arranged :  see 

6). 

As  having  the  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics of  each  letter  strongly 
marked  (and  the  words  distinctly 
arranged :  see  6). 

As  having  no  part  of  a  letter  wrongly 
exaggerated  or  dwarfed  (and  as 
the  lettering  being  proportionally 
arranged :  see  6). 

BEAUTY 

As  having  beautiful  shapes  and  con- 
structions, so  that  each  letter  is  an 
individual  and  living  whole  (not 
a  mere  collection  of  parts)  fitted 
for  the  position,  office,  and  material 
of  the  object  bearing  the  inscrip- 
tion. 

As  the  assimilation  of  the  cor- 
responding  parts  —  "  bodies," 
"limbs,"  "heads" — and  as  the 
"  family  likeness  "  of  the  different 
letters,  so  that  they  go  well  to- 
gether. 

As  having  a  general  fitness  in  the 
placing,  connecting,  and  spacing 
of  letters,  words,  and  lines,  in  the 
disposal  of  the  lettering  in  the 
given  space,  and  in  the  propor- 
tioning of  every  part  of  the 
lettering  and  its  margins. 

CHARACTER 

As  being  genuine  calligraphy,  the 
direct  outcome  of  a  rightly  made 
and  rightly  handled  pen,  (Sttp.^B.) 

As  having  skilled  and  unaffected 
boldness.  (Set  pp.  122,  327,  323,  369.) 

As  having  the  characteristics  which 
distinguish  one  person's  hand 
from  another's.  (Set  also  pp.  278,323.) 

239 


Good 
Lettering  — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


Good  This  summary,  while  not  presuming  to  define 

Lettering —    the  Virtue^  or  achieve  Beauty  by  a  formula,  does 
Some         indicate   some   guiding   principles   for   the   letter- 
Methods  of    maker,  and  does  suggest  a  definite  meaning  which 
Construction  may  be  given  to  the  terms  "  Right  Form,"  "  Right 
&  Arrange-    Arrangement,"   and    « Ri^ht    Expression "     in    a 
ment          particular  craft. 

It  is  true  that  «  Readableness  "  and  "  Character  " 
are  comprised  in  Beauty^  in  the  widest  sense  ;  but 
it  is  useful  here  to  distinguish  them  :  Readableness 
as  the  only  sound  basis  for  a  practical  theory  of 
lettering,  and  Character  as  the  product  of  a  par- 
ticular hand  &  tool  at  work  in  a  particular  craft. 

The  above  table,  therefore,  may  be  used  as  a  test 
of  the  qualities  of  any  piece  of  lettering — whether 
Manuscript,  Printing,  or  Engraving — provided  that 
the  significations  of  those  qualities  on  which 
"  Character "  depends  be  modified  and  adapted  to 
each  particular  instance.  It  is  however  a  test  for 
general  qualities  only — such  as  may  help  us  in 
choosing  a  model  :  for  as  to  its  particular  virtue 
each  work  stands  alone — judged  by  its  merits — in 
spite  of  all  rules. 

SIMPLICITY 

(As  having  no  unnecessary  parts) 

Essential  Forms  and  their  Characterisation. — The 
"  Essential  Forms "  may  be  defined  briefly  as  the 
necessary  parts  (see  p.  275).  They  constitute  the 
skeleton  or  structural  plan  of  an  alphabet ;  and  One 
of  the  finest  things  the  letter-craftsman  can  doy  is  to 
make  the  Essential  Forms  of  letters  beautiful  in  them- 
selves^ giving  them  the  character  and  finish  which  come 
naturally  from  a  rightly  handled  too/. 

240 


If  we    take  the   "  Roman "    types — the    letters         Good 
with  which  we  are  most  familiar — and  draw  them    Lettering — 
in   single   pencil  strokes   (as  a  child  does  when  it         Some 
"  learns  its  letters "),  we  get  a  rough  representa-    Methods  of 
tion  of  their   Essential  Forms   (see   diagram,  fig.  Construction 
142).  &  Arrange- 

Such  letters  might  be  scratched  with  a  point  in 
wax  or  clay,  and  if  so  used  in  practice  would  give 
rise  to  fresh  and  characteristic  developments,1  but 
if  we  take  a  "  square  cut "  pen  which  will  give  a 
thin  horizontal  stroke  and  a  thick  vertical  stroke 
(figs.  10  and  40),  it  will  give  us  the  "straight-pen" 
or  simple  written,  essential  forms  of  these  letters 

(%•  143)- 

These   essential    forms    of    straight-pen    letters 

when  compared  with  the  plain  line  forms  show 
a  remarkable  degree  of  interest,  brought  about  by 
the  introduction  of  the  thin  and  thick  strokes  and 
gradated  curves,  characteristic  of  pen  work. 

Certain  letters  (A,  K,  M,  N,  V,  W,  X,  Y,  and 
k,  v,  w,  x,  y)  in  fig.  143  being  composed  chiefly 
of  oblique  strokes,  appear  rather  heavy.  They  are 
lightened  by  using  a  naturally  "  slanted  "  pen  which 
produces  thin  as  well  as  thick  oblique  strokes.  And 
the  verticals  in  M  and  N  are  made  thin  by  further 
slanting  the  pen  (fig.  144). 

To  our  eyes,  accustomed  to  a  traditional  finish, 
all  these  forms— in  figs.  143  and  144,  but  par- 
ticularly the  slanted  pen  forms — look  incomplete 
and  unfinished  ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  thin 
strokes,  at  least,  require  marked  terminals  or  serifs. 


1  In  fact,  our  "  small-letters"  are  the  formalised  result  of  the 
rapidly  scratched  Square  Capitals  of  the  Roman  era  (p.  37  & 
fig-  3)- 

S  241 


Good 
Lettering — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


ABCDEFGHIK 
LMNOPQRST 
VXYZ'JUWfcS 

Square  Capitals. 


be  boo 

Capitals. 


aabcdefhiklm 


nopcrrst  u  vxy ; 

Small  Lettay.          (3 


*^  --.  j>^      4  / 

Ji  nnurh  Uiajmun  or  the  stiutfwnl 

en- ESSENTIAL  FORMS' 

of  the  three  main  types  tf  Letters 

FIG.  142. 


242 


ABCDEFGHI 
KLMNOPqRS 
TVXYZ*JUW 

S<piare  Capitals,  (ptnfonns). 


bebrocmu 


Capitals.   (v.Undats). 


aabcdefcrhikl 
mnopcprst  uvx 

VZ&j  W  UU  2   Smallltttvs. 


Diamrwi 

'oftke  'three  main  typ&)  A  S^ 
jnvdu&td  1yy  a"strtu4kt  Pen" 


Good 

Lettering — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


FIG.  143. 

243 


Good 

Lettering  — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


AKMNVW 

Letters  —~  as 


XY*$&kvwxy5 

-produced  by  a  *  *  Strutted   Pent       » 

fmn  0*  ESSENTIAL  FORM5 


FIG.  144. 

Finishing-Strobes. — The  pen  naturally  produces 
a  variety  of  finishing-strokes  —  "heads,"  "feet," 
serifs,  &c. — each  type  of  which  strongly  charac- 
terises the  alphabet  in  which  it  is  employed. 

The  main  types  (fig.  145)  are — 

(a)  Hooks  or  beaks. 

(b)  Straight   (or    curved]    strokes,   thick    or    thin 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  pen. 

(c)  Triangular  "  heads "  (and  "  feet  "),  straight  or 
slanted,  and  more  or  less  curved  and  sharpened. 

(d)  Thin  finishing-curves,  horizontal  or  oblique. 

To  give  uniformity  to  the  various  letters  of 
an  alphabet  it  is  necessary  to  treat  similar  parts 
as  consistently  as  possible  throughout  (see  No.  5, 
p.  239).  And  the  remarkable  way  in  which  "heads" 
impart  a  "  family  likeness "  to  letters  closely 
resembles  the  same  phenomenon  among  human 
beings  (see  pp.  324,  254). 

If  we  consider  the  four  types  of  serif,  as  applicable 
to  straight-pen  writing,  we  find — 

244 


Suitable  only  for  certain 
parts  of  certain  letters 
(and  for  informal  writ- 
ing). 

Informal  (or  Orna- 
mental). 

Formal    and   capable  of 
imparting    great    ele- 
gance and  finish. 
For  a  formal,  straight-pen  writing,  therefore,  we 
may  assume  that  a  form  of  triangular  head  is,  on 


C. 


(a)  Hooks  or  Beaks 
(d)   Thin   Finishing- 
Curves 

(b)  Straight  (or  Curved]  \ 

THIN  Strokes      f 

(c)  Triangular 

"Heads"  I 


Good 

Lettering  — 

Some 

Methods  of 
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&  Arrange- 
ment 


Slanted-pen  firms  ofserifr  &) 
oblique  ends  v  V. 

FIG.  145. 

the  whole,  the  most  suitable,  while  some  of  the 
letters  may  be  allowed  to  end  naturally  in  finishing 
hooks  and  curves. 

245 


Good  Heads  are  easily  built  up  at  the  ends  of  thick 

Lettering  —  strokes,  but  some  practice  is  required  to  enable  a 

Some  penman  to  make  them  on  the  thin  strokes  properly 

Methods  of  and  skilfully.  On  the  thin  horizontals  they  are 

Construction  made  with  an  almost  continuous  movement  of  the 

&  Arrange-  p0'mt  of  the  nib  from  the  thin  stroke  itself  (see  (a) 

ment  to  ^  fig^  I^  c!Osely  resembling  the  termination 


half-nib  point/run?  up 


Reverse 
filled  in  (c.)    is  rrverxd  (f.) 

HI **     ~"TL     "7^"      I  * 

T^  ^4.  -F 


E. 

three  hed&  (i)  an*  mvatiad    vertical 


FIG.  146. 

of  some  of  the  thin  strokes  in  the  Irish  half-uncial 
(Plate  VI.).     On  the  thin  oblique  or  vertical  stems 
a  thin  crossing  stroke  is  first  made,  and  then  shaped 
246 


with  the  pen  point  to  meet  the  stem  (see  (/)  and  (£)        Good 

fig.  146).  Lettering — 

We  may  write  out  the  letters  now  with  their         Some 

suitable  serifs,  and  we  see  that  the  Pen  character  Methods  of 

and  finish,   given  to  the  "Essential,   or  Skeleton,  Construction 

Forms  "  (fig.  142)  result  in  a  very  formal  and  highly  &  Arrange- 
finished  alphabet  (fig.  147). 

Slanted-pen  characters  and  serifs  (see  fig.  145) — 

(a)  Hooks  or  Beaks          ^     Suitable  for  most  of  the 
(d)   Thin    Finishing-        >        letters,  but  tending  to 

Curves  )         be  informal. 

(b)  Straight  (or  Curved]  \     „          .        , 

THICK  Strokes]    Formal  and  strong. 

(    Formal  and  suitable  for 

(c)  Triangular  Heads     <         small-letters,  and  free 

(        capitals  (see  fig.  168). 

The  alphabets  (fig.  148),  produced  from  the 
skeleton  forms  (fig.  142)  by  the  slanted  pen,  while 
not  having  such  a  conscious  air  of  finish  as  the 
straight- pen  letters,  are  much  easier  to  write,  and 
have  in  a  greater  degree  the  virtues  of  strong,1 
legible,  natural  penmanship. 

They  are  eminently  suitable  for  general  MS. 
work  (see  p.  305)  when  the  beginner  has  mastered 
an  early  form  of  round-hand  (see  pp.  70,  304). 

DISTINCTIVENESS 

(As  having  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  each 
letter  strongly  marked) 

The  "Characteristic  Parts"  are  those  parts  which 
most  particularly  serve  to  distinguish  one  letter  from 

1  Their  greater  strength  may  not  at  first  be  apparent  in  fig.  148, 
as  the  nib  used  therefor  is  narrower,  in  proportion  to  the 
height  of  letter,  than  that  used  for  fig.  147  (see  also  fig.  151). 

247 


Good 
Lettering — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


ABCDEFG 
H1JKLMN 
OPQRST& 
UVWXYZ 

abcdeftjiij 
klmnopqrs 


tuvwxyz;?: 

Ponrud  types  <£  \jtttas  J  .  \  „  9  f  *  1 
vduayUue  ^Jtimht-TEtt  ^  "f 


FIG.  147. 
248 


ABCDEFG 
HIJKLMN 


Good 

Lettering  — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
St  Arrange- 
ment 


UVWXYZ 

abcdefgkij 

klmnopcjTS 

tuvwxyziT. 

'Slanted-Pat  "  diamcteaat 

FIG.  148. 


249 


Good         another  (fig.    149).      We  should  therefore,  when 

Lettering constructing  letters,  give  special  attention  to  their 

Some 

Methods  of 

Construction 

&  Arrange- 
ment 


SOME 

ofihtmon 


* 


"CHARACT 
ERISTIC 

FAKT5: 

Such  of 

distinguish 


•  .. 


stem  -letters. 

^nbrtMft 

special  treat- 


(See  also  F     150.) 


FIG.  149. 

preservation,  and  sometimes  they  may  even  be 
accentuated  with  advantage — always  with  an  eye 
to  the  life-history,  or  evolution,  of  the  letter  in 
question,  and  allowing  for  the  influence  of  the 
special  tool  with  which  it  is  to  be  made  (see  Pro- 
portion^ below). 
250 


PROPORTION  Good 

(As  having  no  part  of  a  letter  wrongly  exaggerated      Lettering 

*  ^/^-see  pp.  274,  277-78)  J|a««  of 

The  right   proportioning  of  letters  entails  the    Construction 

&  Arrange- 
ment 


cn. 


FIG.  150. 

preservation  of  their   Essential   Forms   and   their 
Characteristic  Parts,  and,  provided  these  are  not 

251 


Good 
Lettering- — 

Some 

Methods  ot 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


seriously  interfered  with,  a  certain  amount  of  ex- 
aggeration (and  dwarfing) 1  is  allowable  in  special 
cases ;  particularly  in  ornamental  writings,  and 
Pen-flourished  capitals  or  terminal  letters  (see  figs. 
79  and  125). 

Rational  exaggeration  usually  amounts  to  the 
drawing  out  or  flourishing  of  tails  or  free  stems,  or 
branches — very  often  to  the  magnifying  of  a  char- 
acteristic part  (see  fig.  150,  &  pp.  250,  331).  It  is 
a  special  form  of  decoration,  and  very  effective  if 
used  discriminately. 

BEAUTY    OF    FORM 

(As  having  beautiful  shapes  and  constructions,  so  that 
each  letter  is  an  individual  and  living  whole  (not 
a  mere  collection  of  parts)  fitted  for  the  position, 
office,  and  material  of  the  object  bearing  the  in- 
scription) 

To  choose  or  construct  beautiful  forms  requires 
good  taste,  and  that  in  its  turn  requires  cultivation, 
which  comes  from  the  observation  of  beautiful 
forms.  Those  who  are  not  accustomed  to  seeing 
beautiful  things  are,  in  consequence,  often  uncer- 
tain whether  they  think  a  thing  beautiful  or  not. 
Some — perhaps  all  of  us — have  an  intuition  for 
what  is  beautiful  ;  but  most  of  us  have  to  achieve 
beauty  by  taking  pains. 

At  the  least  we  are  apt  to  be  misled  if  we  label 
abstract  forms  as  essentially  beautiful  or  essentially  ugly 
— as  by  a  mistaken  recipe  for  beauty.  For  us  as 
craftsmen  "  achieving  beauty  by  taking  pains," 
means  acquiring  skill  in  a  special  craft  and 

1  The  exaggeration  of  one  part  may  be  said  relatively  to  dwarf 
the  other  parts  of  a  letter ;   but  it  is  seldom  advantageous, 
and  often  not  permissible,  to  dwarf  part  of  a  letter  absolutely. 
252 


ment 


adapting   that   skill    to    a   special    piece   of  work.         Good 
And   perhaps   the   surest   way  to  learn,   is  to  let  Lettering  — 
our  tools  and  materials  teach  us  and,  as  it  were,         Some 
make  beautiful  shapes  for  us.  Methods  of 

"  Inside  Shapes."— The  beauty  of  a  letter  depends    Construction 
very  much  on  its  inside  shape — i.e.  the  shape  of  the    &  Arrange- 
space  enclosed  by  the  letter  form.     As  this  is  often 
overlooked,  it  may   be   briefly  referred  to.      Fre- 
quently when    it   seems   difficult   to    say  what   is 
wrong  with  a  piece  of  bad  lettering,  a  glance  at 
the  inside  shapes  will  reveal  the  fault.     In  simple 
writing^  if  the   pen  be  properly  cut  and  properly 
held,  these  shapes  will  generally  take  care  of  them- 

oon? 


laside.  shape?:  mufc 


IS.tzndto 


FIG.  151. 


selves,  and  internal  angles  or  asymmetrical  lines 
which  occur  are  characteristic  of  that  particular  form 
of  penmanship,  and  not  accidental  (£,  fig.  151). 

253 


Good  In   making   Built-up   letters — which  have  both 

Lettering —    outer  and  inner  strokes — the  inner  strokes  should 

Some         generally  be  made  first  (see  p.  121). 
Methods  of        Plain  and  Ornamental  Forms. — Not  only  for  the 
Construction   sake  of  readableness,   but  to  promote  a  beautiful 
&  Arrange-    anc|  dignified  effect,  the  forms  of  letters  are  kept 
simple  when  the  text  is  long.     And,  generally,  the 
less  frequent  the  type,  the  more  ornamental  may  be 
its  form  (see  pp.  126,  210,  298,  330). 

BEAUTY   OF   UNIFORMITY 

(As  the  assimilation  of  the  corresponding  parts — "bodies" 
"  limbs"  "  heads " — and  as  the  "family  likeness" 
of  the  different  letters,  so  that  they  go  well  together) 

Right  uniformity  makes  for  readableness  and 
beauty,  and  is  the  result  of  good  craftsmanship. 

Readableness. — Where  the  text  letters  are  uni- 
form, the  reader  is  free  to  give  his  attention  to  the 
sense  of  the  words,  whereas  the  variations  in  an 
irregular  or  changing  text  are  distracting.1 

Beauty. — The  abstract  beauty-of-uniformity  may 
be  said  to  lie  in  this,  that  the  different  letters,  or 
individual  elements,  "go  well  together"  The 
beautiful  effect  of  uniform  lettering  is  thus  caused 
by  the  united  forces,  as  it  were,  of  all  the  letters. 

Good  Craftsmanship. — A  pen,  or  other  letter- 
making  tool,  being  handled  freely  and  regularly, 
the  uniform  movements  of  the  tool  in  similar  cases 
will  produce  uniform  strokes,  &c.  (On  the  other 
hand,  the  interruption  and  loss  of  freedom  to  the 

1  As  when  the  construction  of  a  part  of  some  letter  is  peculiar 
(all  the  y  or  g  tails,  for  example,  catching  the  eye,  and  standing 
out  on  the  page),  or,  as  when  promiscuous  types  are  used,  giving 
the  impression  of  a  confused  crowd  of  letters. 

254 


writer  who  is  irregular,  or  who  forces  an  unnatural 
variety,1  results  in  inferior  work.) 

RIGHT    ARRANGEMENT 

(As  having  a  general  fitness  in  the 
placing,  connecting,   and  spacing  of 
BE  A  UTT  OF      letters,  words,  and  lines,  in  the  dis- 
ARRANGE-  <   posal  of  the  lettering  in  the  given 
MENT  space,  and  in  the  proportioning  of 

every  part  of  the  lettering  and  its 
margins) 

The  particular  fitness  of  a  given  inscription 
depends  upon  considerations  of  its  particular  office, 
position,  material,  &c.  (see  pp.  100,  351).  For  general 
use,  however,  the  craftsman  has  certain  regular 
modes  of  disposing  and  spacing  the  lettering,  and 
proportioning  the  whole.  And,  as  in  constructing 
individual  letters,  so  in  treating  lettering  as  a  whole, 
he  endeavours  to  give  his  work  the  qualities  that 
make  for  readableness  :  viz.  simplicity,  distinctiveness, 
and  proportion. 

Simplicity  in  the  Disposal  of  the  Lettering. — For 
convenience  of  construction,  reading,  or  handling, 
the  simple,  traditional  arrangement  of  lettering  is 
generally  followed  in  dealing  with  flat  surfaces 
(paper,  vellum,  &c.) :  2  — 

THE  TEXT  FORMING 
A  RECTANGLE,  CON- 
SISTING OF  A  NUM- 
BER OF  EQUAL  LINES 

1  Variety. — There  is  a  variety  both  readable  and  beautiful  (see 
pp.  210,  369),  but  it  is  founded  on  uniformity  (and  sincerity). 

a  "JBanJs"  and  symmetrical  or  asymmetrical  groups  of  letter- 
ing adapted  to  the  available  space  are  used — usually  as  ornament 
— upon  friezes,  furniture,  chests,  book  covers,  flagons,  dishes, 
and  the  like  (see  fig.  156  &  p.  336).  The  special  treatment  of 
such  things  is  a  matter  for  the  craftsman  who  makes  them. 

255 


Good 

Lettering  — 
Some 

Methods  of 


ment 


Good 
Lettering — 

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Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


Distinctiveness  in  the  Spacing  of  the  Lettering  necessi- 
tates sufficient  interspaces  :  the  following  common 
spacing  of  Letters,  Words,  Lines,  &c.,  may  be 
modified  to  suit  special  circumstances. 

Letters,  as  a  rule,  are  not  equidistant,  but  their  interspaces  are 
approximately  equal  (a,  fig.  151). 

Words,  commonly  one  letter-space  apart  (b  and  <:). 

Lines  of  Capitals,  frequently  half  (d)  or  whole  (e)  letter-height 
apart.  Lines  of  Small-Letters,  commonly  ascenders  and  descenders 
just  clearing  (/"). 

Divisions  of  Text  a  clear  line  apart,  or  marked  by  a  difference 
in  colour  or  size  (see  figs.  94,  96,  186,  &c.). 

Proportion  In  the  Treatment  of  the  Whole  Inscription. 
— The  spacing-proportions  referred  to  above  apply 
to  lettering  generally,  but  the  proportions  of  an 
inscription  as  a  whole  involve  the  consideration  of  a 
special  case.  Example  : — 

The  Proportions  to  be  Considered  in  the  Case  of  a 

MANUSCRIPT  BOOK  (see  pp.  100-108,  341,  &c. ). 
(i)  Size  and  shape  of  the  Book     (Set  by  custom,  use  of  Book, 


and  its  page  (proportion  of 
width  to  height)  (see  p.  103). 
0)  Width  of  Margins- 
Proportions — 

(a)  to  each  other. 

(b)  to  size  of  page. 

(c)  to  the  lettering. 

(3)  Size  of  Writing — 
Proportion  of  height  of  letter 

to  length  of  line. 

(4)  Number  of  lines — 
Proportion  of  text  to  page. 


(5)  Size     of 
Initials,  & 


Large      Capitals, 


(6)  Size  of  Decorative  Divisions 
of  the  Text  (marked  by 
different  treatment,  colour, 
ornament,  &c.). 

256 


size  of  material,  &c.)  (see  figs. 
69,  70,  and  pp.  101,  &c.). 

(a) (Commonly about  i £:  1:3:4) 
(see  fig.  70,  and  pp.  103-7). 

(b)  (Frequently  about,  or  more 
than,  half  the  area  of  the  page). 

(Set  by  page,  and  margin,  and 
number  of  words  in  the  line ; 
usually  more  thany*o«r  words 
to  the  line)  (see  pp.  107-8). 

(Set  by  page,  margin,  and 
height-of-letter,and  modified 
by  treatment  of  spacing)  (see 
pp.  108,  z6z). 

(Set  by  Small-Letter ;  common- 
ly one,  two,  three,  or  more 
of  the  writing  -  line  -  spaces 
high)  (see footnote,  p.  an). 

(Set  by  page,  &c. ;  usually  such 
Division  is  relatively  small 
or  large — as  a  definite  "head- 
ing," or  a  whole  page)  (see 
p.  132). 


equaL  (white)  Interspaces 


WORTCSPAGE 

spaccadbctwcdrwon 

r M  s 


LINES  OFM 
CAPITALS  i^, 
LINES  OFlgf 

CAPlTALSJl 


distance  apart  V| 
Uiiies ^oFSmall "18? 


Good 

Lettering  — 

Some 

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Construction 
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ment 


257 


Good 

Lettering — 

Some 

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SETTING    OUT,    &    FITTING    IN 

Ruling. — The  approximate  sizes  of  margins  and 
letters,  and  the  number  of  lines  of  text,  having  been 
estimated,  guiding  lines  are  ruled  on  the  surface 
(see  p.  343) — a  right  and  a  left  vertical  marginal  line, 
with  the  necessary  number  of  horizontals  between 
them.  (In  the  case  of  a  manuscript,  these  lines 
are  ruled  faintly  (or  grooved),  and  are  left  to  form 
a  feature  of  the  page  ;  for  inscriptions  on  other 
materials  than  paper,  parchment,  &c.,  they  are 
generally  removed  after  setting-out.) 

Setting-out. — An  inscription  of  any  size,  or  one 
requiring  complex  or  very  nice  arrangement,  is  set- 
out  in  faint,  sketchy  outline  of  lead  pencil  or  chalk. 
Simple  writing  is  not  set-out,  but  such  slight  calcu- 
lation or  planning  as  is  necessary  is  carried  out 
mentally,  or  on  a  scrap  of  paper.  By  practice  the 
scribe,  like  the  compositor,  can  fit  his  lettering  to 
the  given  space  with  ease  and  accuracy.  For  writ- 
ing  and  (to  a  large  extent)  printing,  both  combine  set- 
ting-out and  the  act  of  "fettering"  in  one  operation.  And 
this  shows  how  practice  gives  foreknowledge  of  the 
"  mechanical  "  part  of  the  work,  leaving  the  mind 
free  to  take  pleasure  in  its  performance  ;  and  also 
how  slight — if  necessary  at  all — is  the  experimental 
setting-out  of  simple  forms  required  by  the  practised 
workman. 

Dividing  Monosyllables. — In  simple  writing — the 
beauty  of  which  depends  on  freedom  rather  than  on 
precision — I  think  that  even  such  an  awkward 
word  as  "  through  "  should  not  be  broken.  If  the 
space  at  the  end  of  a  line  is  insufficient,  it  should  be 
left  blank,  or  be  filled  in  with  a  dash  of  the  pen. 
But  in  the  case  of  words  in  LARGE  CAPITALS, 
especially  in  title-pages  and  the  like,  where  spacing 

258 


is  more  difficult,  and  smooth  reading  less  essential,         Good 
any  word  may  be  divided  at  any  point  if  the  neces-    Lettering  — 
sity  is  sufficiently  obvious.     But   (even  when   the         Some 
division  is  syllabic)  breaking  words,  as  interfering    Methods  of 

Construction 
&  Arrange- 


AVO1 DIN. 

breaking 


ment 


MONOGRAlvMATICi 
TREATMENT: IF  TlE 
SPACE  DEJvNNDS  IT 


IKSIT 


FIG.  153. 

with  the  ease  of  reading,  may  often  be  avoided 
with  advantage,  and  divisions  which  give  accidental 
words,  especially  when  they  are  objectionable,  as 

259 


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Lettering — 

Some 

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Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


"  TH-ROUGH,"  or  "  NEIGH-BOUR,"  should  not  be 
allowed.  Among  other  ways  of  dealing  with  small 
spaces,  without  breaking  words,  are  the  following  : — 

Ending  with  Smaller  Letters. — The  scribe  is  always 
at  liberty  to  compress  his  writing  slightly,  provided 
he  does  not  spoil  its  readableness  or  beauty.  Occa- 
sionally, without  harming  either  of  these,  a  marked 
difference  in  size  of  letter  may  be  allowed  ;  one  or 
more  words,  or  a  part  of  one,  or  a  single  letter,  being 
made  smaller  (a,  />,  fig.  153  ;  see  also  Plate  V.). 

Monogrammatic  Forms,  &c. — In  any  kind  of  letter- 
ing, but  more  particularly  in  the  case  of  capitals, 
where  the  given  space  is  insufficient  for  the  given 
capitals,  monogrammatic  forms  resembling  the  ordi- 
nary diphthong  IE  may  be  used  ;  or  the  stem  of 
one  letter  may  be  drawn  out,  above  or  below,  and 
formed  into  another  (c,  fig.  153). 

Linking. — Letters  which  are  large  enough  may 
be  linked  or  looped  together,  or  one  letter  may 
be  set  inside  another,  or  free-stem  letters  may  be 
drawn  up  above  the  line  (d,  fig.  153,  but  see  p.  26). 

Tying  up. — One  or  more  words  at  the  end  of  a 
line  of  writing — particularly  in  poetry  (see  p.  95) — 
may  be  "  tied  up,"  i.e.  be  written  above  or  below  the 
line,  with  a  pen  stroke  to  connect  them  to  it  (fig.  67). 

Care  must  be  taken  that  none  of  these  methods 
lead  to  confusion  in  the  reading.  Their  "  Quaint- 
ness  " — as  it  is  sometimes  called — is  only  pleasing 
when  their  contrivance  is  obviously  made  necessary. 

"MASSED  WRITING"  &  "FINE  WRITING" 

We  may  distinguish  two  characteristic  modes  of 
treating  an  inscription,  in  which  the  treatment  of 
the  letter  is  bound  up  with  the  treatment  of  the 
spacing  (fig.  154). 

260 


And  if  I  bestow  all 
Ttiy  roods  to  feed 
the  poor;  and  if  I 
cnvernybocU^tlutl 
nuv  crtory,  but  have 
not  love,  it  profits 
cth  me  notmrur-ir 

1         rr     i 

Ljflove  surreiwi  Lan<r^ 
and  is  Kind; 
Love  cnvieta  not; 

love  vauntetk  not  itseU; 

rp  i 
is  notpurrca  up, 


FIG.  154. 

261 


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Some 

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ment 


"  Massed  Writing"  (Close  Spacing). — The  written 
or  printed  page  is  very  commonly  set  close,  or 
"  massed,"  so  that  the  letters  support  and  enforce 
one  another,  their  individual  beauty  being  merged 
in  and  giving  beauty  to  the  whole.  The  closeness 
of  the  letters  in  each  word  keeps  the  words  distinct, 
so  that  but  little  space  is  required  between  them,1 
and  the  lines  of  writing  are  made  close  together  (ascend- 
ing and  descending  stems  being  shortened,  if  neces- 
sary, for  this  purpose). 

"Fine  Writing"  (Wide  Spacing). — An  inscription 
in  "Fine  Writing"  may  be  spaced  widely  to  dis- 
play the  finished  beauty  of  the  letters,  or  to  give  free 
play  to  the  penman  (or  letter-craftsman).  It  con- 
sists generally  of  a  number  of  distinct  lines  of  Writing 
(or  other  lettering). 

The  two  modes  may  be  contrasted  broadly,  thus — 


MASSED 

WRITING  \       together. 

Has  an  effect  of  richness,  de- 
pending on  tone  of  mass  and 
close,  even  spacing. 

Simple  method  (for  ordinary 
use) ;  saving  of  time  and 
space,  .'.  suited  for  long 
inscriptions  or  small  spaces. 

Lines  generally  of  equal  length, 
or  if  some  fall  short,  end- 
fillings  may  be  used — gaps 
are  avoided  if  possible. 


FINE  /  Lines  spaced 

WRITING\  and  separated. 

Has  an  effect  of  elegance,  de- 
pending on  form  of  letters 
and  distinct  arrangement  of 
lines. 

Refined  method  (for  special 
use);  lavish  of  space  and 
time,  .-.  suited  for  large 
spaces  or  short  inscriptions. 

Lines  may  be  of  unequal 
length,  giving  irregular, 
right-hand  edge,  as  in  poetry 
(see  p.  263) — gaps  allowed 
on  either  side. 


1  By  closing  up  the  letters  and  the  words  one  may  generally 
avoid  "  rivers,"  or  accidental  spaces  straggling  through  the 
text.  The  presence  of  "rivers"  is  at  once  made  evident  by 
slanting  the  page  and  looking  along  its  surface,  across  the 
lines.  Note,  that  whether  the  lines  be  close  or  wide,  the  inter- 
spacing of  the  Small-Letters  does  not  vary  very  much. 
262 


Ascending  and  descending 
stems — medium  or  short : 
serifs  simple,  and  not 
strongly  marked. 

Suited  for  slanted-pen  forms 
of  "  gothic  "  tendency,  and 
heavy,  black  writing  (ex- 
ample, "black  letter").* 

Requires  generally  contrasts  of 
colour  or  weight  (p.  330),  and 
will  bear  more  and  heavier 
illumination  (Line-fillings, 
Initials,  Borders,  &c.). 


Stems — medium  or  long  :  long 
stems  often  a  marked  feature, 
ending  in  carefully  made 
heads  and  feet,  or  flourishes. 

Suited  for  straight  and  slanted 
pen  forms  of  "  roman"  ten- 
dency,and  slender,  light  writ- 
ing (example,  "  Italic").* 

Allows  variety  in  size  of  Letters 
(see  pp.  298,  318):  its  typical 
treatment  is  as  plain,  fne 
lettering  —  better  without 
heavy  Borders,  &c.  (p.  199). 


*  NoTE. — Both  modes  are  suited  for  Roman  Capitals  and  Small- 
Letters. 

These  two  modes  may  not  have  been  recognised 
by  the  ancient  letter-craftsmen  :  their  comparison 
here  is  intended  chiefly  as  a  stimulus  to  definite 
thought,  not  as  a  hard-and-fast  division  of  two 
"  styles  "  ;  for  there  may  be  any  number  of  possible 
compromises  between  them.  In  practice,  however, 
it  will  be  found  convenient  to  distinguish  them  as 
two  modes  of  treating  LINES  OF  WRITING  which  produce 
markedly  different  effects,  the  one,  as  it  were,  of  COLOUR, 
the  other  of  FORM. 

Plates  XL,  XIIL,  XIV.,  XV.,  XVII.  may  be 
taken  as  examples  of"  Massed  Writing,"  Plates  IV., 
V.,  VI.,  VII.,  IX.,  (XXI.)  of  «  Fine  Writing" ;  the 
other  plates  suggest  compromises  between  the  two. 

Poetry  (see  p.  95),  or  any  text  consisting  of,  or 
which  is  conveniently  broken  up  into  unequal  lines, 
may  be  treated  as  "  Fine  Writing."  There  is  no  ob- 
jection to  a  straight  left-hand  edge  with  an  irregular 
right-hand  edge,1  where  the  cause  of  the  irregularity 

i  The  gaps  on  the  right  may  be  filled  with  line-finishings  to 
preserve  a  "Massed"  effect,  but  for  many  purposes  this  would 
be  apt  to  look  too  ornamental  (see  pp.  205,  423). 

263 


Good 
Lettering — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


Good 
Lettering — 

Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 
&  Arrange- 
ment 


is  natural  and  obvious,  and  no  fault  of  the  scribe's. 
Such  an  arrangement,  or  rather,  straightforward 
writing,  of  poetry  is  often  the  best  by  virtue  of  its 
freedom  and  simplicity  (see  p.  371). 

In  many  cases,  however,  a  more  formal  and 
finished  treatment  of  an  irregular  line  text  is  to  be 
preferred  (especially  in  inscriptions  on  stone,  metal, 
&c.),  and  the  most  natural  arrangement  is  then  an 
approximately  symmetrical  one,  inclining  to  "  Fine 
Writing  "  in  treatment.  This  is  easily  obtained  in 
inscriptions  which  are  previously  set-out,  but  a  good 
plan — certainly  the  best  for  MSS. — is  to  sort  the 
lines  of  the  text  into  longs  and  shorts  (and  sometimes 
medium  lines),  and  to  set-in  or  indent  the  short  lines 
two,  three,  or  more  letters.  The  indentations  on 
the  left  balance  the  accidental  irregularities  on  the 
right  (fig.  154,  and  Plate  IV.),  and  give  an  appear- 
ance of  symmetry  to  the  page  (see  Phrasing,  p.  384). 

Either  mode  of  spacing  (close  or  wide)  may  be 
carried  to  an  unwise  or  ridiculous  extreme.  "  Lead- 
ing "  the  lines  of  type  was  much  in  vogue  a  hundred 
years  ago,  in  what  was  then  regarded  as  "  high- 
class"  printing.  Too  often  the  wide-spaced  line 
and  "grand"  manner  of  the  eighteenth-century 
printer  was  pretentious  rather  than  effective  :  this 
was  partly  due  to  the  degraded  type  which  he 
used,  but  form,  arrangement,  and  expression  all 
tended  to  be  artificial.  Of  late  years  a  rich, 
closely  massed  page  has  again  become  fashionable. 
Doubtless  there  has  been  a  reaction  in  this  from  the 
eighteenth  century  to  an  earlier  and  better  manner, 
but  the  effect  is  sometimes  overdone,  and  the  real 
ease  and  comfort  of  the  reader  has  been  sacrificed  to 
his  rather  imaginary  aestheticism. 

By  attaching  supreme  importance  to  readable- 

264 


ness,  the  letter-craftsman  gains  at  least  a  rational        Good 
basis  for  his  work,  and  is  saved  from  the   snares  Lettering — 
which  lurk  in  all,  even    in  the   best,    modes  and         Some 
fashions.  Methods  of 

Construction 

EVEN  SPACING  &  Arrange- 

ment 

In  the  spacing  of  a  given  inscription  on  a  limited 
surface,  where  a  comparatively  large  size  of  letter 
is  required,  what  little  space  there  is  to  spare 
should  generally  be  distributed  evenly  and  consis- 
tently (ay  fig.  155).  Lavish  expenditure  of  space 
on  the  margins  would  necessitate  an  undue  crowd- 
ing1 of  the  lettering  (/>),  and  wide  interspacing2 
would  allow  insufficient  margins  (c) — either  ar- 
rangement suggesting  inconsistency  (but  see  p.  352). 

NOTE. — A  given  margin  looks  larger  the  heavier 
the  mass  of  the  text?  and  smaller  the  lighter  the  mass  of 
the  text.  And,  therefore,  if  lettering  be  spread  out, 
as  in  "  Fine  Writing,"  the  margins  should  be  extra 
wide  to  have  their  true  comparative  value.  The 
space  available  for  a  given  inscription  may  in  this 
way  largely  determine  the  arrangement  of  the 
lettering,  comparatively  small  and  large  spaces 
suggesting  respectively  "Massed  Writing"  and 
"Fine  Writing"  (see  p.  262). 

In  certain  decorative  inscriptions,  where  letters  are 
merely  treated  as  decorative  forms — readableness 

1  In  (£)  fig.  155,  the  letters  have  been  unintentionally  nar- 
rowed. The  natural  tendency  to  do  this  forms  another  objec- 
tion to  such  undue  crowding. 

8  In  (c)  the  letters  have  been  unintentionally  widened. 

3  Experiment. — Cut  out  a  piece  of  dark  brown  paper  the 
exact  size  of  the  body  of  the  text  in  an  entire  page  of  this 
Handbook,  viz.  5^  inches  by  3  inches,  and  lay  it  on  the  text: 
the  tone  of  the  brown  paper  being  much  darker  than  that  of 
the  print  makes  the  margins  appear  wider. 

265 


Good 
Lettering — 

Some 
Methods  of 


CONSIDER 

Conduction  EACH  TllNG 


&  Arrange- 
ment 


IS  COME  &OF  WHAT 
IT  CONSISTS  (V  INTO 
WHAT  IT  CHANGES* 


CONSIDER 


WHENCE  EACH 


TOfG 


IS  COME  &OF  WHAT 
1TCONS1STS&WTO 
WHATITCHANGES. 


lONSlDER 

WHENCE  EACH  TUNG 
.5  COME  &  OF  WHAT 
T  CONSISTS^,  INTO 
VH AT  IT  CHANGES 


FIG.  155- 
266 


being  a  matter  of  little  or  no  moment — the  treat-        Good 
ment  of  the  spacing  is  adapted  to  a  particular  sur-   Lettering — 
face  ;  and,  for  example  : —  Some 

Methods  of 
Construction 

THE  LETTERS  MAY  BE  KEPT  VERY        &  Arrange- 

ment 

CLOSE,  FORMING  ORNAMENTAL 
BANDS,  THO'  THE  LINES  MAY  BE 
WIDELY  SPACED. 

OR  THE  LETTERS 
MAY  6  E  FAR  APART 
&  THE  LINES  CLOSE. 

FIG.  156. 


THEORY    &    PRACTICE 

The  above  discussion  of  theories  and  "  rules " 
for  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  good 
lettering  is  intended  to  suggest  some  useful  methods 
— not  to  provoke  excessive  fitting  or  planning,  but 
rather  to  avoid  it.  Straightforwardness  is  perhaps 
the  greatest  virtue  in  a  craft,  and  whatever  "  rules  " 
it  may  break  through,  it  is  refreshing  and  charm- 
ing. 

An  excellent  example  for  the  scribe  or  inscrip- 
tion maker  is  the  method  of  an  early  printer,  who 
had  only  four  or  five  sorts  of  type — say,  "  Small- 
Letters  "  and  "  Capitals  "  (Roman  and  Italic)  and 
"  Large  Capitals,"  and  who,  without  any  elaborate 
"design,"  simply  put  his  types  into  their  proper 

267 


Good 

Lettering — 
Some 

Methods  of 


ment 


places,  and  then  pulled  off  his  pleasant  sheets  of 
"  commonplace  "  printing. 

The  scribe  should  choose  the  best  and  simplest 
forms  and  arrangements,  and  master  them  before 
Construction  going  further  ;  he  should  have  a  few  definite  types 
&  Arrange-  «  at  his  finger  tips,"  and,  for  everyday  use,  a  matter- 
of-course  way  of  putting  them  down  on  paper. 

Ambiguity  is  one  of  the  greatest  faults  in  a  craft. 
It  comes  often  from  vague  ambitions.  One  may 
be  inspired  by  good  ambitions,  but  the  immediate 
concern  of  the  craftsman  is  to  know  what  he  is 
capable  of  doing  at  the  present,  and  to  do  it. 

Let  the  meaning  of  your  work  be  obvious  unless 
it  is  designed  purely  for  your  own  amusement.  A 
good  craftsman  seeks  out  the  commonplace  and  tries 
to  master  it,  knowing  that  "  originality  "  comes  of 
necessity,  and  not  of  searching. 


CHAPTER   XV 


THE    ROMAN    ALPHABET   &   ITS    DERIVATIVES 

The  Roman  Alphabet — Proportions  of  Letters  :  Widths 
— Upper  &  Lower  Parts — Essential  or  Structural 
Forms  —  Characterisation  of  Forms  —  Built-Up 
Forms  —  Simple  -  Written  Capitals  —  Uncials  — 
Capitals  &  Small- Letters — Early,  Round,  Upright, 
Formal  Hands — Slanted  -  Pen  Small- Letters  — 
Roman  Small  -  Letters  —  Italics  —  Semi-Formal 
Hands — Of  Formal  Writing  Generally — Decora- 
tive Contrasts — Ornamental  Letters. 

The  Roman  THE  ROMAN  ALPHABET 

Alphabet      THE    Roman   Alphabet    is  the    foundation    of  all 

TV    .  lts.         our  alphabets  (see  Chapter  I.).    And  since  the  full 
Derivatives  , 


&  its 
Derivatives 


development  of  their  monumental  forms  about  2OOO  The  Roman 
years  ago,  the  Roman  Capitals  have  held  the  sup-      Alphabet 
reme  place  among  letters  for  readableness  and  beauty. 
They  are  the  best  forms  for  the  grandest  and  most 
important  inscriptions,  and,  in  regard  to  lettering 
generally,  a  very  good  rule  to  follow  is  :   When  in 
doubt,  use  Roman  Capitals. 

The  penman  may  with  advantage  devote  some 
study  to  a  fine  monumental  type  of  Roman  Capital 
(such  as  that  of  the  Trajan  Column  Inscription  : 
Plates  I.  and  II.),  and  endeavour  to  embody  its  virtues 
in  a  built-up  pen  form  for  use  in  MSS.  (p.  294). 

PROPORTIONS    OF    LETTERS  I     WIDTHS 

The  marked  distinction  between  the  "  Square  " 
and  the  "  Round  "  forms,  and  the  varying  widths 
of  the  letters — as  seen  in  the  early  inscriptions,1 
are  characteristic  of  the  Roman  Alphabet.  We  may 
broadly  distinguish  Wide  and  Narrow  letters  thus — 


OQCGD 
WIDE  M  W 

H  (U)  A  N  V  T  (Z) 
B  E  F  R  S  Y  (X) 
NARROW  I  I  J 

KLP 


«  Round.n 


Square" 


1  Such  inscriptions  contrast  favourably  with  that  Nineteenth 
Century  style  in  which  it  was  customary  to  make  every  letter 
occupy  the  same  space  and  look  as  much  like  its  neighbour  as 
possible. 


269 


The  Roman 

Alphabet 

&  its 


The  "Round"  Wide  Letters— 0,  £>,  C,  G,  D.— 

Omay  be  regarded  as   the    Key    letter    of  an 
alphabet.     Given  an   O   and  an   I   of  any 
Derivatives    alphabet,  we  can  make  a  very  good  guess  at  the 
forms  of  the  other  letters. 

In  fine  Inscriptions  the  external  line  of  O  is 
commonly  an  almost  perfect  circle  (see  Plate  II.) 
— i.e.  its  height  and  width  are  equal.  This  may  be 
regarded  as  the  ideal  shape,  though  a  slight  widen- 
ing or  narrowing  of  the  letter  (fig.  157)  is  quite 
permissible.1 

ooo 

circular,     ruunnver.     wider. 


FIG.  157. 
Q,  C,  G,  and  D  follow  the  proportions  of  O 

1  NOTE. — There  is  less  danger  of  spoiling  letters  by  narrowing 
them  than  by  widening,  because  the  limits  to  the  possible  narrow- 
ing of  a  letter  are  more  obvious  than  the  limits  to  its  possible 
widening.  Further,  when  letters  are  widened  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  thicken  their  parts  and  make  them  heavy  and  vulgar. 

270 


very  nearly,  and,  though  C,  G,  D  are  a  little  narrower,  The  Roman 
they  have  the  same  effect  of  roundness  and  width.      Alphabet 

The   «  Square  "    Wide   Letters—  M,   W>  and  H,          &  its 
(  £7),  A,  N,  V,  T,  (Z)-  Derivatives 

Their    mean    width   is   properly 

about  equal  to  their  height. 

H     Width  equal  to,  or  a  little  less  than,  height 
(fig.  158),  but  if  made  too  narrow  it  would 
look  heavy,  being  double-stemmed. 

(see  pp.  287,  284)  resembles  H. 


Ma   TXT" 
VV 


1  "I 

A 
> 


«    T  T  are  double-stemmed,  and  have 
V       internal    angles,    moreover, 
which  would  become  too  sharp  —  and  tend  to  close 


danxgrs  of  too  sharp  aiuges. 

FIG.  158. 


271 


The  Roman   up — if  they  were  made  too  narrow  (fig.  158). 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


Alphabet       A-pv     The  cross-bar — the  characteristic  part  of  T 
&  its  J[        — projects  a  fair  way  on  either  side  of  the 


stem. 

158). 


'"7      Either    wide   or   (moderately)    narrow   (fig. 


The  Narrow  Letters,  By  £,  F,  R,  5,  Y  (X]  (see 
fig-  I59> 


BERS 


X 


narrow 


FIG.  159. 

There  is  a  point  of  division  in  these  letters  about 
the  middle  of  the  stem  or  a  little  above  (see  p.  273), 
and  we  may  argue  that  each  being  composed,  as  it 
were,  of  two  little  letters — which  are  half-height, 
they  are  proportionately  half-width :  and  this  will 

be  found  approximately  correct.       l-£  may  be  said 

to  consist  of  one  little  D  on  the  top  of  another, 
averaging  respectively  half  the  height  and  width  of 
a  full-sized  D. 

ETT>         T}      follow   the    proportions    of    B 
j  I1  J  &  IV    (see  also  E,  4,  p.  282). 

272 


Smay  be  made  of  one  little  tilted  O  on  the  top    The  Roman 
of  another — joined    together  and    having    the      Alphabet 

superfluous  parts  removed.  &  its 

Derivatives 
is  like  a  little  V  upon  a  little  I. 

Either  narrow  or  wide  (fig.  159). 

The  Narrow  letters,  AT,  Z,,  and  P — 
These  forms  are  related  to  the  B,  E  forms,  but 
it  is  permissible  to  make  them  a  little  wider  to  give 

clearance  to  the  angles  of  the  1^  and  force  to  the 
single  arm  and  loop — the  characteristic  parts  (see 
%•  149)— °f  ]^  and 


UPPER    &    LOWER    PARTS 

In  the  letters  B,  E,  H,  K,  X  (A),  F,  R,  P  (S), 
Y  there  is  generally  a  tendency  to  enlarge  the 
lower  part,  the  cross-bar — or  division — being  set 
above  mid-height.  This  tendency  may  reasonably 
be  accounted  for  as  follows  : — 

The   natural  division   of      l-<        H          I — I 

1^"    &    Y^     regarded  as  abstract  forms,  would 

be  symmetrical — i.e.  at  the  centre  of  the  stem.1 
In  order  that  its  apparent  position  may  be  central, 
however,  it  is  necessary,  for  optical  reasons,  to  make 

*  The  primitive  forms  of  these  letters  were  vertically  symmet- 
rical, I  believe. 

s  273 


&  its 
Derivatives 


A 


The  Roman  its  actual  position  above  the  centre.1  And  further, 
Alphabet  by  a  reasonable  enlargement  of -the  lower  part, 
these  letters  acquire  a  greater  appearance  of  stability. 
It  would  be  well,  I  think,  for  the  letter-craftsman 
to  begin  by  making  such  divisions  at  the  apparent 
centre  (i.e.  very  slightly  above  mid-height ;  see 
E,  F,  X,  Plate  II.),  so  keeping  most  nearly  to  the 
essential  forms  (see  p.  275).  Later  he  might  con- 
sider the  question  of  stability  (see  B,  Plate  II.). 
The  exaggerated  raising  (or  lowering)  of  the 
division  associated  with  "Art  Lettering"  is  illeg- 
ible and  ridiculous. 

The  lower  part  is  essentially  bigger,   and 
the  cross-bar  is  not   raised,  as  that   would 
make  the  top  part  disproportionately  small. 

F  usually  follows  E,  but  being  asymmetrical  and 
open  below  it  may,  if  desired,  be  made  with 
the    bar   at — or   even   slightly  below — the  actual 
centre. 

In    early    forms    the    bow    was    frequently 
rather  large   (see  Plate  II.),   but  it  is  safer 
to    make   the    tail — the  characteristic  part — more 
pronounced  (see  Plates  III.,  XXIV.). 

PThe    characteristic  part  of  P   is   the    bow, 
which  may  therefore  be  a  little  larger  than 
the  bow  of  R  (see  Plate  III.). 

Sin  the   best   types  of  this  letter  the  upper 
and   lower    parts   are   approximately    equal ; 
there  is  a  tendency  slightly  to  enlarge  the  lower 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  that  the  eye 
seems  to  prefer  looking  upon  the  tofi  of  things,  and  in  reading, 
is  accustomed  to  run  along  the  tops  of  the  letters — not  down 
one  stroke  and  up  the  next.  This  may  suggest  a  further 
reason  for  smaller  upper  parts,  viz.  the  concentration  of  as  much 
of  the  letter  as  possible  in  the  upper  half. 

274 


R 


part.     (In  Uncial  and   early  round-hands  the   top 
part  was  larger  :  see  Plates  IV.  to  VII.) 

Y  varies  :  the  upper  part  may  be  less  than  that 
of  X,  or  somewhat  larger. 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


ESSENTIAL    OR    STRUCTURAL    FORMS 

The  essential  or  structural  forms  (see  p.  240)  are  the 
simplest  forms  which  preserve  the  characteristic  structure^ 
distinctivenesS)  and  proportions  of  each  individual  letter. 

The  letter-craftsman  must  have  a  clear  idea  of 
the  skeletons  of  his  letters.  While  in  every  case  the 
precise  form  which  commends  itself  to  him  is  matter 
for  his  individual  choice,  it  is  suggested  in  the 
following  discussion  of  a  typical  form — the  Roman 
B — that  the  rationale  of  his  selection  (whether 
conscious  or  unconscious)  is  in  brief  to  determine 
what  is  ABSOLUTELY  essential  to  a  formy  and  then  how 
far  this  may  be  amplified  in  the  direction  of  the  PRACTI- 
CALLY essential. 

The  letter  B  reduced  to  its  simplest  (curved-bo-w)  form — i.e. 
3  the  bare  necessity  of  its  distinctive  structure — comprises  a 
erfendlcular  item  spanned  by  t-wo  equal,  circular  bo-ws  (a,  fig.  160). 

In  amplifying  such  a  form  for  practical  or  aesthetic  reasons, 

•  is  well  as  a  rule  not  to  exceed  one's  object — in  this  case  to 

*ermine  a   reasonable  (though  arbitrary)  standard   essential 

n  of  B,  having  a  distinctive  and  proportionate  (f)  structure. 

may  increase  the  arcs  of  the  bows  till  their  width  is  nearly 

1  to  their  height  (b),  make  their  outer  ends  meet  the  ends 

e  stem  (e),  and  their   inner  ends  coincide  (d).      Raising 

.vision  till  its  apparent  position  is  at  or  about  the  middle  of 

,tem  entails  a  proportionate  increase  of  width  in  the  lower 

:,  and  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  upper  part  (e). 

The  very  idea  of  an  essential  form  excludes  the 
wwnecessary,  and  its  further  amplification  is  apt  to 
take  from  its  distinctiveness  and  legibility.  Where 
no  limits  are  set,  modification  is  apt  to  become 

275 


The  Roman    exaggeration.       And,    though    special     forms    and 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


e. 

method  o 
*orm"of  Capital  B 


FIG.  1 60. 


ornamental  letters  may  be  produced  by  "  reasonable 
exaggeration"  (/£,  /,  #z,  fig.  161),  if  the  tool  be  kept 
276 


ARB1TRA 


Having  a 

j    " 
ana, 


I.)       c.J 

--X    —^ 


'tend- 

/ency  to  —  _ 

-  of-  any   featiirer- 


disproportion    and  indistin 

'Note : 


is  permissible  in  Orn 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


FIG.  161. 


277 


The  Roman  under  proper  control,  yet,  generally,  such  structural 
Alphabet      changes  do  not  improve  the  appearance  of  the  plain 
letter  forms. 


&  its 
Derivatives 


We  may  test  our  "  Standard  "  (a,  fig.  161)  by  considering  the 
effects  of  further  amplification. 

(1)  Raising  the  division1  slightly  is   permissible   (b,  fig  161) — 
too  much  makes  the  top  part  disproportionately  small  (c). 

(2)  Widening  both  botvs,  or  separating  their  junction  from  the  stem, 
tends  to  dissociate  the  bows  from  the  stem,  making  the  letter 
less  distinctive  (g  and  /,  fig.  161). 

Widening  and  narrowing  are  both  allowable  and 
occasionally  desirable,  but  assuming  that  a  standard 
or  ideal  width  can  be  approximately  determined,  it 
is  well  to  keep  to  it  for  common  and  ordinary  use. 


CHARACTERISATION    OF    FORMS 

(See  also  Built-  Up  Forms^pp.  291-6,  and  pp.  240,  253) 

That  the  tool 2  gives  character  and  finish  to  the 
Essential  Forms  of  letters,  can  easily  be  proved  by 
a  little  practical  experience  of  the  natural  action  of 
a  properly  cut  pen  (see  figs.  142  to  148,  and  162). 
And  the  penman — or  indeed  any  other  letter-maker 
— is  advised  to  allow  the  pen  to  train  his  hand  to 

l  The  extremely  beautiful  and  finished  B  in  the  "Trajan 
Alphabet"  (Plate  II.)  has  the  division  a  little  higher,  and  a 
marked  enlargement  of  the  lower  part ;  until  the  letter-crafts- 
man can  approach  the  perfection  of  its  execution  he  will  find 
a  simpler  form  more  suitable  for  his  "  standard."  A  curious 
form,  in  which  the  top  lobe  has  nearly  or  quite  disappeared 
(comp.  c,  fig.  161),  is  found  in  early  Roman  inscriptions.  This 
form  (which  may  have  helped  to  give  us  the  useful  small  b)  is 
not  suitable  for  a  modern  Capital,  and  would  lack  the  distinctive- 
ness  of  B. 

3  Chisel-made  Roman  Capitals  (possibly  influenced  by  brush, 
&c.,  pp.  292,  391),  Plates  I.,  II.:  (modern),  XXIV.  Pen-made, 
Plates  III.,  XVIII.:  (modern),  figs.  147,  148,  167,  168,  &c. 

278 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


EIUZATJONOF 
THE  LfTTERB. 
BY"  MEANS  OF 

PEW 

STROKES 


FIG.  162. 


279 


The  Roman  make  the  proper  strokes  automatically  :    then   he 
Alphabet      may  begin  to  master  and  control  the  pen,  making 
&  its          it  conform   to   his  hand    and  so  produce    Letters 
Derivatives    which   have  every   possible   virtue  of  penmanship 
and  are  as  much  his  own  as  his  common  hand- 
writing. 

Most  of  the  letters  in  a  good  alphabet  have 
specially  interesting  or  characteristic  parts  (p.  250), 
or  they  exhibit  some  general  principles  in  letter 
making,  which  are  worth  noting,  with  a  view  to 
making  good  letters,  and  in  order  to  understand 
better  the  manner  in  which  the  tool — whether 
pen,  chisel,  or  brush — should  be  used. 

The  characterisation  of  the  Roman  Capital  Form. 
NOTE. — The  large  types  below  are  indices — not  models. 

A      I .  A  pointed  form  of  A,  M,  and  N  (see 
Plate  II.)  may  be  suitable  for  inscriptions 
in  stone,  &c.,  but  in  pen  work  the  top  is 
preferably    hooked   (fig.   167),   beaked  (fig. 
147),    or   broken   (fig.    158),    or   specially 
marked  in  some  way,  as  this  part  (both  in  Capital 
A  and  small  a)  has  generally  been  (fig.  189). 

2.  The  oblique  strokes  in  A,  K,  M,  N,  R,  V, 
W,   X,   Y,  whether  thick  or   thin,  are   naturally 
finished  with  a  short  point  inside  the  letter  and  a 
long,  sharp  point,  or  beak^  outside  (see  serifs  of  oblique 
strokes,  p.  289). 

3.  The  thin  stem  may  be  drawn  out  below  for 
an  occasional  form  (see  F,  3). 

1 .  B,  D,  R,  and  P  are  generally  best  made 
round-shouldered  (fig.  162  &  Addenda^  p.  26). 

2.  B,  D,  E,  F,  P,  R  (and  T)  have  gene- 
rally an  angle  between  the  stem  and  the  top 
horizontal,  while 


B 


280 


3.  below  in  B,  D,  E  (and  L)  the  stem  curves  or    The  Roman 
blends  with  the  horizontal.  Alphabet 

4.  See  O,  2.  &  its 

Derivatives 

Ci.  C,  G,  and  S  ;  the  top  horizontals  or 
*  arms '  may  be  straighter  than  the  lower 
arms,  or  vice  versa  (see  figs.  167  and  206). 
2.  C,  G,  and  S;  the  inside  curve  is  best 
continuous — from  the  '  bow  '  to  the  ends 
of  the  *  arms ' — not  being  broken  by  the  serifs,  and 

3.  it  is  best  to  preserve  an  unbroken  inside  curve 
at  the  termination  of  all  free  arms  and  stems  in 
built-up  Roman  Capitals,     In  C,  G,  S,  E,  F,  L, 
T,  and  Z  the  upper  and  lower  arms  are  curved  on 
the  inside,  and  squared  or  slightly  pointed  outside 
(the  vertical  stems  curve  on  either  side)  (fig.  163). 

4.  *  Arms '    are   best  shaped  and  curved   rather 
gradually  out  to  the  terminal  or  serif,  which  then 
is  an  actual  part  of  the  letter,  not  an  added  lump 
(p.  289). 

5.  See  O,  2. 

Di.  See  B,  i. 
2.  See  B,  2  and  3. 
3.  The    curve   may   be   considered   as 
springing  from  the  foot  of  the  stem,  and 
may  therefore  for  an  occasional  form  be 
separated  from  the  stem  at  the  top  (*Z),  fig.  177). 
4.  See  O,  2. 


E 


1.  See  B,  2  and  3. 

2.  See  C,  3  and  4. 

3.  The  lower  limb   in  E,  L  (and   Z)  is 
often  drawn  out  :  these,  however,  are  pro- 
perly  to  be   regarded  as  occasional  or  special 

281 


The  Roman  forms:  the  lower  serif  of  this  type  commonly  points 

Alphabet  out  (see  figs.  2C>6,  1  88). 

&  it8  4.  E's  three  arms  (&  F's  two)  are  approximately 

Derivatires  equai  ;„  /ength  in  the  best  early  forms 


1.  See  B,  2. 

2.  See  C,  3  and  4  (and  E,  4  above). 

3.  One  or  more  (the  development  of  the 
letter  and  tradition  may  decide  which)  of 
the  free  stems  of  A,  F,  G,  H,  I,  J,  K,  L, 

M,  N,  P,  R,  T,  V,  W,  X,  Y  may  be  drawn  out 
for  occasional  forms  (see  fig.  188). 

4.  The  elongated  stems  of  F,  I,  J,  P,  T,  Y  may 
hang  below  the  line,  or  they  may  (occasionally) 
stand  on  the  line  and  overtop  the  other  letters. 

Gi.  See  C,  i,  2,  3,  and  4. 
2.  The  stem  may  be  drawn  out  below 
the  line  (F,  3). 
3.  The  stem  sometimes  forms  an  angle 
with  the  lower  'arm'  (this  is  safest:  see 
fig.  148),  sometimes  they  blend  (fig.  147). 

4.  The  point  of  the  lower  'arm'  may  project  a 
very  little  beyond  the  stem  to  mark  the  outer  angle. 

5.  The  wholly  curved  "gothic"  {ey    (and  also 

the  other  round  letters  :  see  p.  119)  may  be  intro- 
duced occasionally  among  Roman  Capitals. 

6.  See  O,  2. 


H 


282 


1.  The  left-hand  stem    is  occasionally 
drawn  out  above  (F,  3  &  comp.  fig.  3),  and 

2.  this    form    is   sometimes    associated 
with  an  ornamental  cross-bar  (fig.  189). 

3.  H  and  N  mayslightly  widen  out  above. 


I 


1.  The  stem  may 
below  (F,  3  and  4). 

2.  See  J,  2. 


be  drawn  out  above  or 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


Ji.  The  stem  or  tail  may  be  drawn  out  (F, 
3  and  4). 
2.  NOTE. — With  regard  to  the  use  of  I  for 
J  (and  V  for  U) :  this  is  associated  so  much 
with  the  Latin  usage,  that  it  is  perhaps  per- 
missible still  in  Latin.1     But  for  modern  English, 
in  which  these  letters  are  strongly  differentiated,  the 
tailed  J  and  the  round  U  are  to  be  preferred.     Be- 
sides the  suspicion  of  affectation  attaching  to  the 
other  mode,  its  strangeness  gives  an  appearance  of 
awkwardness — almost  amounting   to   illegibility — 
to  common  words,  such  as  «  A  QVAINT  IVG  " 
or  "  IAM  IAR."     And,  at  the  least,  very  careful 


1  J.  C.  Egbert  in  an  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Latin 
Inscriptions"  says,  "  J  -was  not  specialised  at  a  letter  until  the  l$th 

Century."    It  would  seem  that  in  early  inscriptions  a  tall    I 
was  frequently  used  for  J  bet-ween  vowels,  and  for  I  at  the  begin- 
nings of  words  :  later,  while  the  medial  I  remained  straight,  the 
initial  form  was  curved  to  the  left  and  used  for  both  I  and  J;  this 
curved  initial  form,     I  ,  at   length    became    identified    with   the 

letter  J. 

Similarly,  it  appears  that  V  was  used  for  an  initial,  and  U 
for  a  medial ;  and  later,  the  V  form  became  identified  with 
the  consonant. 


In  the  words 


3ln  tofgi,  nattu  >»  «*• 


the 


initial  I  is  curved  like  a  J,  while  the  medial  i's  are  straight ; 
the  initial  V  has  a  v  form,  while  the  medial  V  in  nativ(itatis)  has 
a  u  form. 

283 


The  Roman  discrimination  is  desirable  :    "  IVBILATE  "  may 

Alphabet  pass,  but  "  I VIVBE  "  is  not  really  readable. 

&  its  3.  The  tail  of  the  J  may  be  slight,  provided  it 

Derivatives  be  distinct,  and  the  second  stem  of  the  U   may 

match  the  first  (fig.  158)  ;    the  ugly  J    and 

in  common  use  need  not  be  copied. 
4.  See  also  Tails,  pp.  289-291. 


K 


1.  The  stem   is  sometimes  drawn  out 
above  (F,  3). 

2.  Both  arms  are  occasionally  lengthened, 
and  the  width  of  the  letter  increased,  by 
joining  the  thin  arm  to  the  stem  lower 

down  5   the  thick  arm,  or  tail,  then  springs  from 

the  side  of  the  thin  arm  (compare    I?  ).      This 

tends  away  from  the  essential,  and  is  therefore  a 
less  safe  form. 

3.  The  tail  may  be  curved  or  drawn  out  occa- 
sionly  (see  Tails,  pp.  289-291). 

4.  Serifs  on  arms.     See  A,  2. 


L 

M 


1.  See  B,  3. 

2.  See  C,  3  and  4. 

3.  See  E,  3. 

4.  See  F,  3. 


I.  The  stems  are  commonly  slightly 
spread  out  to  give  greater  clearance  for 
the  inner  angles.  An  occasional  form 

is  much  spread  out   AA  • 

2.  NOTE. — There  are  inscriptional  forms  of  M 
284 


and  N  without  the  top  serif  (Plate  II.).  But  the 
pen  forms  and  others  have  top  serifs,  and  these 
commonly  extend  outward — tending  to  beaks  (see 
A,  i  and  2) — rather  than  in.  (V,  W,  X,  Y  (and 
N)  show  a  similar  tendency — see  p.  289.) 

3.  The  thin  stem   of  M  is  occasionally  drawn 
out  (F,  3). 

Ni.  See  C,  3  and  4. 
2.  See  H,  3. 
3.  See  M,  2,  and  A,  i  and  2. 
4.  The  first  stem  is  drawn  out  below 
the  line  for  an  occasional  form  (most  suit- 
able for  an  Initial  Letter)  :  the  right-hand  stem  is 
very  occasionally  raised  (when  a  final  letter)  (F,  3). 
5.  NOTE. — The  stems  of  N  (the  only  vertical 
thins — not  counting  M's — in  the  Roman  Capitals) 
tend  sometimes  to  be  thicker  :  see  Plate  II. 

01.  O  is  the  key  letter  of  the  curved 
forms  and,  in  a  sense,  of  the  whole 
alphabet  (p.  270).  The  upright  form — 
£\ — may  be  regarded  as  the  ideal  simple 

letter. 

2.  Very  commonly,  however,  O  is  tilted — 
— (see  fig.  163),  and  when  this  is  the  case,  all  the 
curved  letters— B,  C,  D,  G,  P,  Q,  R,  S,  U—  are 
correspondingly  tilted  (see  Plate  II.).  The  tilted  form 
is  more  easily  made,  but  both  are  good  forms. 


p 


1.  See  B,  i  and  2. 

2.  See  O,  2. 

3.  (P  with  stem   below  line  (see  Plate 
IV.)  must  not  be  allowed  to  confuse  with 
D)  (see  F,  3  and  4). 

285 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


The  Roman        4.  The  bow  of  P  appears  to  be  attached  (to  the 
Alphabet      stem)  above  :  in  certain  forms  it  is  slightly  separated 

&  its         from  the  stem  below  :  see  Plate  II. 
Derivatives 

>^->^       I.  Q  resembles  O  with  a  tail:  see  O. 

f          \      2.  There  are  many  characteristic  var- 

1  I  ieties  of  the  tail :  see  Tails  (pp.  289-291). 

^^^^r       3.  NOTE. — Q   being  always  followed 

^^          by  U,  it  is  convenient  often  to  deal 

with  the  two  letters  together.     (See  Plate  II.) 

Ri.  See  B,  i  and  2. 
2.  See  O,  2. 
3.  In  the  form  nearest  the  essential,  the 
junction  of  the  Bow  and  the  Tail  touches 
the  stem.    If  the  tail  springs  from  the  curve 
of  the  bow  (Plate  II.)  greater  care  in  construction 
is  necessary  (compare  K).     The  treatment  of  the 
tail  is  very  important.     It  may  end  in  a  serif  (see 
A,  2),  or  it  may  be  curved  and  pointed  (see  Tails, 
pp.  289-291).     It  may  be  drawn  out  (see  fig.  50). 
4.  See  F,  3  (&  comp.  fig.  169). 


s 


1.  See  C,  i,  2,  3,  and  4. 

2.  See  O,  2  (and  p.  273). 

3.  S  very  often  leans  slightly  forward. 


Ti.  See  B,  2. 
2.  See  C,  3  and  4. 
3.  Drawing  out  of  stem :  see  F,  3  and  4. 
4.  NOTE. — The  right  arm  is  occasionally 
extended — to  fill  a  line — when  T  is  a  ter- 
minal letter  (in  this  case  it  is  generally  made  lighter, 
and  the  left  arm  heavier — somewhat  as  in  the  Uncial 
T,  figs.  56  &  1 88). 
286 


Ui.  NOTE. — The  curve — if  it  be  modelled    The  Roman 
on  the  common  tilted  O  (see  O,  2) — is      Alphabet 
thin  where  it  meets  the  second  stem.  &  its 

2  (V  for  U).  See  J,  2,  3,  and  footnote.  Derivatives 
3.  The  foot  of  the  second  stem  projects 
on  the  right  only,  and  gives  clearance  to  the  angle 
of  the  curve  on  the  left.  Sometimes  the  second 
stem  ends  in  a  hook  or  beak,  which  (very  occasionally) 
is  drawn  out  below. 


v 


1.  See  M,  2,  and  A,  2. 

2.  The  thick  stem  may  be  drawn  up 
(F,  3),  in  which  case  the  thin  commonly 
curves  over  for  strength  (see  figs.  89,  95). 

3.  (See  note  on  V  for  U,  under  J.) 


1.  See  M,  2,  and  A,  2. 

2.  The   best  form   is  of  two   V's 


crossed, 

3.  The  first  or  both  the  thick  stems  may  be  drawn 
up  and  the  thins  curved  over  (see  V,  2). 

XI.  See  M,  2,  and  A,  2. 
2.  There  is  sometimes  a  slight  curving 
in  of  the  stems,  especially  the  thin  stem 
(see  fig.  80). 

3.  The  thin  stem  is  sometimes  drawn 
out  below  (F,  3),  and  commonly  curved. 


Y 


1.  See  M,  2,  and  A,  2. 

2.  See  F,  3  and  4.    (Y  with  stem  below 
line  (see  Plate  V.)  must  not  be  allowed  to 
confuse  with  V.) 

3.  An  occasional  rather  interesting  form 

287 


The  Roman  of  Y  has  the  arms  curving  out  and  ending  in  points 
Alphabet      (see  fig.  167). 
&  its 

Derivatives       f W      l'  See  C>  3  and  4- 

2.  The  lower  arm  of  Z  is  sometimes 
drawn  out  (see  E,  3) :  it  may  be  curved 
and  pointed  (or  flourished). 


z 


Genera/  Remarks  on  the  characterisation  of  the 
Roman  Capitals  and  related  forms  (see  fig.  I63).1 

VERTICAL  STEMS.— (a,  fig.  163)  Thick  (ex- 
cepting in  the  thin  stemmed  N  (and  M)). 

(b)  Slightly  curved  in  on  either  side  (see  fig.  1 1 6), 
or  appearing  so  because  of  the  outward  curve  of  the 
serifs  (see  figs.  204,  206). 

(c)  A  fine  effect  is  obtained  when    the  stem  is 
made  wider  above  than  below  (see  p.  119). 

(d)  Free  stems  occasionally  are  drawn  out  (see 
above,  F,  3  and  4,  and  pp.  251,  260,  332). 

OBLIQUE  STROKES  or  STEMS.— Thick, 
to  the  left  \,  thin,  to  the  right  /  (see  A,  K,  &c.)> 
otherwise  like  vertical  stems  (above) — (see  also 
SERIFS  (e)  below). 

HORIZONTALS,  ARMS,  BRANCHES,  or 
BARS. — Thin  :  free  ends  sometimes  drawn  out 
and  flourished  (see  figs.  125,  188). 

BOWS  and  CURVES.— Gradated,  and  follow- 
ing the  O  (see  pp.  44,  121,  270,  285). 

SERIFS  or  FINISHING  STROKES.  — (a) 
NOTE. — Serifs  of  some  sort  are  practically  essential 
to  the  proper  characterisation  of  an  alphabet  (see 
figs.  147,  148,  162),  and  should  generally  have  a 
certain  uniformity  (p.  324). 

1  The  more  ornamental  treatment  of  Stems,  Boius,  Serifs,  Tails, 
&c. ,  is  referred  to  at  p.  331,  and  in  figs.  188,  189. 
288 


Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


(b)  The  serifs,  &c.,  of  simple-written  forms  are  The  Roman 
treated  at  p.  244  (see  fig.  145). 

(c)  In  Veriah  and  certain  other  forms  the  mode 
of  making  requires  the  serif  to  be  a  distinct  addition 
to  the  letter  (see  figs.  116,  166). 

(d,  fig.  163)  In  the  finest  built-up  A  B  Cs  serifs  are 
treated  as  the  actual  finishing  and  shaping  of  the 
ends  of  the  stems  and  branches^  rather  than  as  added 
parts  (see  C,  3  &  4,  p.  281  and  p.  240).  This 
particularly  affects  the  construction  of  the  thin 
strokes  (see  figs.  165,  167). 

(e)  The  serifs  of  the  oblique  strokes  in  A,  K,  M,  N, 
R,  V,  W,  X,  Y  are  commonly  not  placed  centrally, 
but  projecting  in  the  direction  of  the  stroke  (i.e. 

away  from  the  letter,  thus  :  J^ ),  branching  out 
from  the  parent  stem  (see  tailsy  below),  and  avoid- 
ing an  acute  angle  (as  "^  ).  This  has  tended  to 

produce  hooks  and  beaks  (see  fig.  163),  which  are 
often  used  for  the  oblique  strokes,  particularly  of 
A  and  N  (see  figs.  189,  158),  and  the  tails  of  K 
and  R  (see  below). 

(/)  There  is  a  similar  natural  tendency  to  hook 
or  flourish  the  terminals  of  vertical  stems  on  the  left, 
particularly  of  B,  D,  I,  J,  K,  L,  P,  R  ;  less  often 
of  E,  F,  H.  A  very  interesting  and  beautiful  effect 
may  be  obtained  by  delicately  curving  down  the 
upper  serifs  on  the  left  (like  thin  beaks').  Such  serifs 
are  sometimes  very  slightly  turned  up  on  the  right, 
and  it  may  be  noted  that  this  tendency  of  the 

"  horizontals  "  to  curve  up  and  forward  - is 

natural  and  characteristic  of  freely  made,  vigorous 
lettering  (see  Uncial  T,  pen  dashes,  &c.,  figs.  169, 
125,  &c.). 

TAILS.— (a)  The  tails  of  K,  Q,  R  (and  J)— 
T  289 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


REE 


dmwn  cniT 


Siorms 


lODf 
IOD3 


.   • 

SERIFS 


FIG.  163. 


290 


and  the  strokes  in  A,  F,  G,  I,  M,  N,  P,  Y,  &c.,  The  Roman 
which  may  be  drawn  out  tail-wise — play  an  impor-      Alphabet 
tant  part  in  the  right  construction,  and  the  occa-         &  its 
sional   decoration,   of  plain   lettering.      They  may    Derivatives 
end  either  in  serifs  or  in  curves  (see  SERIFS  (e)y 
above,  and  fig.  188). 

(b)  NOTE. — It  is  a  characteristic  of  vigorous  forms 
that   branches,  c>f.,  stand  out  well  from  their  stems 
(pp.  219,  (e)  289,  (N)  271),  and  a  good  tail  should 
stand  out  well  from  the  letter  (K,  Q,  fig.  167). 

(c)  An  excellent   form  of  tail  for  ordinary  use, 
combining  strength  and  grace,  consists  of  a  (strong) 
straight  stroke  ending  more  or  less  abruptly  in  a 
(graceful)  finishing  curve.. 

(d)  An  extraordinarily  long  tail  requires  a  slight 
double  curve  to  take  off  its  stiffness. 

(e)  A  good  tail  may  be  made  by  the  addition  of 
a   double   curved   stroke   on   the  under  side  of  a 
straight  tail  (or  of  a  single  curve  above). 

(f)  In  treating  the  tail  of  J,  or  the  drawn-out 
stems  of  A,  F,  G,  I,  M,  N,  P,  Y,  it  is  important 
to  preserve  the  essential  straightness  of  the  stems. 
Therefore,  if  a  finishing  curve  be  used,  its  size  is 
related   to  the  length  of  the  straight  stroke,  and, 
unless  this  be    extraordinarily   long,  the  curve  is 
usually  made  rather  small  and  abrupt.     A  curve 
which  is  too  large  is  apt  to  weaken  the  form  and 
"  pull  it  out  of  the  straight"  (^,  fig.  163). 


BUILT-UP    FORMS 


Built-up  Letters  are  composed  of  compound 
strokes  (<:,  d,  fig.  1 64) ;  Simple-written  Letters  of 
simple  strokes  (#,  £). 

The  Pen  being  an  instrument  which  produces 

291 


&  its 
Derivatives 


The  Roman  definite  thick  and  thin  strokes  on  a  smooth  surface,  is 
Alphabet  perfectly  adapted  to  the  construction  of  either 
simple  or  compound  forms  ;  other  tools,  such  as  the 
stylus,  needle,  graver,  &c.,  produce  various  scratches, 
stitches,  or  cuts,  generally  of  the  nature  of  rather  vary- 
ing thin  strokes,  and  to  produce  thick  strokes  a 
building-up  process  is  required. 

In  making  built-up  forms  the  control  exerted  by 
the  tool  is  less  obvious,  and  more  depends  upon  the 
craftsman,  who  must  therefore  use  greater  care 
and  judgment.  Not  only  is  it  possible,  but,  occa- 
sionally, it  may  be  desirable  to  depart  from  the 
more  obvious  tool-forms ;  though  generally  the 
more  simply  and  naturally  tool-made  a  form  is, 
the  better  it  is. 

The  fine  early  inscriptions  are  supposed  to  have 
been  first  drawn  or  painted  (in  outline)  and  then 
cut  into  the  stone.  The  chisel  forms  were  doubt- 
less affected  in  this  way  by  brush  (and  indirectly 
by  pen)  forms,  but  these  were  of  the  simplest — no- 
thing was  sketched  in  that  was  unfitted  for  the 
chisel  to  make  into  a  natural  and  true  chisel-form. 

The  action  of  the  brush  or  "  pencil "  to  a  certain 
extent  resembles  that  of  the  pen,  but  their  effects 
are  really  distinct.  In  contrasting  pen-made  and 
brush-made  letters,  we  may  observe  that  a  pen  form 
tends  to  abrupt  changes  from  thin  to  thick  :  a  brush  form 
to  gradation  (fig.  164).  The  pen  particularly  affects 
curved  strokes  (comp.  a  &  b),  generally  making  them 
more  quick  and  abrupt  (or  even  broken,  see  *  *  c). 
than  brush  curves.  The  brush  will  give  more  grace- 
ful and  finished  but  less  uniform  letters  (see  p.  376). 

The  character  of  a  pen-letter  depends  greatly  on 
the  nib-width  (p.  324),  and  narrow,  medium,  or  broad 
nibs  are  used  according  to  the  type  of  letter  required. 

292 


+OX.O 

Simple-written  PEN  curves 


FIG.  164. 

A  narrow  nib  may  be  used  for  special  (built-up) 
Initials  and  Capitals,  which  are  drawn  rather  than 
written  (a,  fig.  165).  The  horizontal  arms  (made 
by  the  pen  held  horizontally)  are  markedly  affected, 
and  if  a  very  fine  nib  were  used,  the  necessity  of 
strengthening  and  thickening  them  would  tend 
further  to  reduce  the  pen  character. 

A  broad  nib  gives  strong,  uniform  pen-letters  (b}. 

For  ordinary  use  letters  are  perhaps  best  made 
with  a  "medium"  nib  (<:).  The  width  of  the 
ordinary  writing-pen,  or  rather  narrower,  gives  a 
good  proportion  for  initials,  &c.  (see  pp.  118,  218). 

In  MS.  books  the  early  built-up  Capitals  were 

293 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


The  Roman  commonly  of  a  rather   severe   type — approaching 

Alphabet  the  Roman  Capital,  but  having  the  sharp  contrast 

&  its 
Derivatives 


Proportion 
of  width  of 
notarize 
of  letter? 
Nornnv: 


ediuni: 


FIG.  165. 


between  the  thicks  and  the  thins  characteristic  of 
pen-letters  (fig.  166).  They  make  very  simple  and 
effective  "  Versals." 

A  more  highly  finished  type  of  pen-made  Roman 
Capital  may  be  made  by  blending  the  serifs  and 
stems  (dy  p.  289) :  it  is  nearer  to  the  inscriptional 
form,  but  it  exhibits  a  more  curved  and  supple 

294 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


in 


295 


The  Roman  outline,   which   comes  of  natural   pen-strokes   (fig. 

Alphabet  167). 

&  its 
Derivatives          /^"^  •       **       ^        '^    'W'     ~W~ 

AFGIJ 

KLTVP 


o 


ut/r-u^'pen  Capitals  (see  also 
.  15S,      .Ncte  tik&  O. 


FIG.  167. 

The  remarks  in  Chapter  VII.  on  the  treatment 
of  the  more  elastic  "  Gothic  "  Versal  (a  free  variety 
296 


of  the  Roman)  may  be  taken  as  applying  generally  The  Roman 

to   (Coloured)    Built-up  Capitals  —  due  allowance  Alphabet 

being  made  for  the  characteristic  differences  of  the  &  lts 

various  types.  Derivatives 


SIMPLE-WRITTEN    CAPITALS 

"Rustic  Capitals"  (fig.  4)  may  be  referred  to 
here  as  typical,  simple-written  capitals.  Though 
not  a  very  practical  form,1  they  are  full  of  sugges- 
tions for  a  semi-ornamental  lettering  in  which  the 
pronounced  treatment  of  the  heads  and  feet  might 
be  a  feature  (comp.  fig.  203).  They  were  used  as 
ornamental  letters  for  titles  and  the  like  (see  Plates 
VIII.,  IX.,  &c.)  for  centuries  after  they  had  gone 
out  of  ordinary  use. 

Simple  -  written  Roman  Capitals.  —  (Examples  : 
Plates  III.,  XVIIL,  XIX.,  XXL,  figs.  147,  148, 
168,  175,  179.  See  also  pp.  247,  429.) 

Uncials. — (Examples  :  see  p.  300.) 

Simple  -  written  Capitals  ordinarily  conform  to 
the  writing  line — as  set  by  the  small  text  (p.  82). 
This  applies  even  where  several  words  in  capitals 
have  to  be  inserted  in  the  small  text,  though  in 
special  cases  where  these  might  look  too  crowded 
such  capitals  might  be  written  on  alternate  lines. 

Used  for  Initial  Words,  headings,  whole  pages,  or 
books,  in  black  or  colour,  they  are  written  with 
greater  freedom  and  accorded  more  special  treat- 
ment (see  pp.  298,  299). 

Simple-written  Capitals  are  best  composed  of 
sharp,  clean,  pen-strokes  :  they  may  be  quite  plain 

1  Their  thin  stems  and  heavy  branches  may  tend  to  weakness 
and  illegibility—*^,  such  letters  as  E,  F,  I,  L,  and  T  (see 
fig.  4)  are  not  always  easily  distinguishable. 

297 


The  Roman  or  more  or  less  decorative  (fig.  168),  subject  to  the 

Alphabet  general  rule  that  the  fewer  the  number  of  letters  or  the 

&  its  more  ornamental  their  office,  the   more  elaborate  and 

Derivatives  fanciful  may  be  the  forms  employed  (see  p.  294). 


ABCDEg 


NOPQVR 
RSTVV. 

ital*  :  rvwrh 


Caital*  :  rvwrhl 


FIG.  1  68. 

A  freely  used  pen  naturally  produces  occasional 
varieties  for  special  or  ornamental  purposes  :  these 
tend  to  elegance  and  drawn  out  flourished  strokes 
(p.  331);  they  vary  chiefly  in  being  extra  large.1 

—  -  :  - 

1  Increasing  the  tixe  of  letter  affects  the  form  as  though  the  nib 
were  narrowed  (see  p.  324). 
298 


&  its 
Derivatives 


Several  of  these  may  be  used  with  fine  effect  in   The  Roman 
a   page    of    plain    Capitals,    their    "  weight "    (and      Alphabet 
generally  their  colour)  being  the  same  as  that  of 
the  text  (see  Plate  V.,  and  p.  328). 

Whole  Books  or  Pages  written  in  Capitals. — A  very 
grand  effect  may  be  produced  by  these  at  the 
expense  of  a  little  more  time  and  material  than 
a  Small-letter  MS.  entails.  The  lines  of  writing 
are  commonly  made  one-letter-height  apart :  this 
requires  ordinary  simple  ruling — the  capitals  being 
written  between  every  alternate  pair  of  lines  (see 
p.  412). 

Such  writing  may  conveniently  be  treated  as 
"Fine  Writing"  (p.  262).  It  justifies  the  use  of 
wider  margins.  It  is  generally  more  difficult  (and 
less  necessary)  to  keep  the  right-hand  edge  as 
straight  as  a  small  text  permits.  The  irregularities 
of  this  edge  may  be  balanced  by  setting  out  in  the 
left  margin  the  first  letters  of  sentences,  verses,  and 
the  like  (see  p.  264).  Such  initials  may  be  written 
larger  or  more  ornamentally  as  suggested  above  ; 
or,  if  built-up  Letters  are  required,  plain,  rather 
slender  Roman  Capitals  are  the  most  suitable : 
these  look  best  in  burnished  gold. 

Perhaps  the  finest  and  most  beautiful  work  which 
the  penman  can  produce,  is  a  book  written  entirely 
in  gold1  capitals'*  on  purple  vellum  (see  pp.  164,  175). 
This  is  only  possible  in  special  cases,  but  a  book 
rightly  so  made  being  illuminated  from  within,  has 
an  incomparable  simplicity  and  grandeur.,  surpass- 
ing that  of  the  finest  post-decorated  and  illuminated 
manuscripts. 


1  Some  may  be  in  "  silver"  (p.  165). 

2  In  a  very  short  book  these  might  even  be  built-up  capitals. 

299 


The  Roman  UNCIALS 

Alphabet  _ 

&  its  Examples  :  Plates  IV.,  V. ;  figs.  5,  169  (enlarged) ; 
Derivatives  (modified,  fig.  56). 

Uncials  are  typical  pen-capitals.1  Though  not 
of  such  practical  use  as  the  simple-written  Roman 
Capitals,  their  great  possibilities  and  their  beauty 
make  them  worth  practising.  (See  Round,  Upright, 
Forma/  Hands,  p.  304.) 

Their  use  is  limited  by  two  considerations — 
First:   that   while  the  round  ^b.  C,  b.  CO,  U 
are  essentially  legible  (p.  239),  people  generally  are 
not  accustomed  to  them,  and  may  find  them  hard  to 
read  ;  and 

Secondly:    that    *b,  p-0!-  ^,)  .  k,L,  p,  q^ 

have  ascending  and  descending  strokes  which  are 
apt  to  become  too  pronounced  and  give  an  un- 
pleasant appearance  of  "tailiness"  to  a  page  of 
Uncial  Writing  (in  English,  sec  footnote,  p.  326). 

The  first  difficulty  may  be  met  by  keeping 
Uncials  for  special  MSS. — for  private  use — and 
introducing  them  sparingly  or  not  at  all  in  Service 
Books,  Placards,  &c.,  where  ease  and  quickness  of 
reading  are  essential. 

The  appearance  of  "  tailiness  "  (not  so  obvious  in 
Latin)  may  be  avoided  by  making  the  tails  shorter 
and  keeping  the  lines  of  writing  well  apart.  Or 
freely  made  Roman  Capitals  without  tails  (see  D, 
tail-less,  fig.  57)  may  be  substituted  for  one  or 
more  of  the  chief  offenders. 

1  Palaeographers  call  them  "  majuscules  "  (  =  "  large  letters  "), 
but  distinguish  them  from  "Capitals."     For  the  purposes  of 
the  modern  penman,  however,  they  may  be  regarded  as  Round 
Capitals.     (For  their  treatment,  see  pp.  297-299,  and  304.) 
300 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


The  Roman        Uncials  may  be  "  round  "  (see  Plate  IV.,  fig.  5, 

Alphabet  and  p.  304),  or  "pointed"  (see  fig.   169,  and  p. 

&  its  413). 
Derivatives 

CAPITALS    &    SMALL-LETTERS 

During  the  development  of  Small-Letters  from 
Capitals  but  little  distinction  was  made  in  their 
use,  and  such  capital  forms  as  N  and  R  were 
freely  and  promiscuously  used  in  the  round  minuscule 
writings,  together  with  the  small-letters  n  and  r  (see 
Plates  VI.,  VII.).  On  the  other  hand,  Small-Letter 
forms  were  frequently  written  larger  and  used 
as  initials.  In  Irish  and  Anglo-Irish  MSS.  these 
were  filled  inside  with  green,  yellow,  or  red,  and 
surrounded  outside  with  red  dots,  or  otherwise 
decorated  with  colour  (see  fig.  7,  and  Plate  VI.). 

In  early  MSS.,  therefore,  one  does  not  find  an 
alphabet  of  Simple  -  Written  Capitals,  which  is 
peculiar  to  a  given  small  text.  But  we  may 
employ  a  kindred  capital  —  such  as  the  round 
Uncial  for  the  round  Half-Uncial.  And  a  fitting 
alphabet  may  always  be  constructed,  from  the 
"  Roman  "  or  "  Uncial "  types  of  Capitals  (footnote, 
p.  300),  by  taking  the  same  pen  with  which  the 
small-letters  have  been  made  and  using  it  in  a 
similar  manner  :  "  straight  "  for  "  straight-pen  " 
writing,  and  "  slanted  "  for  "  slanted-pen  "  writing 
(see  figs.  147,  148). 

When  in  doubt  as  to  the  type  of  Capital — for 
any  purpose — use  Roman  Capitals. 

EARLY,    ROUND,    UPRIGHT,    FORMAL    HANDS 

Examples  :  Half-  Uncials — fig.  6  (Roman) ;  Plate 
VI.  (Irish), Plate  VII. (English)  fig.  170  later;  see  also 
pp.  40,  44,  413-415.  Uncials  (Plate  IV.  and  p.  38). 

302 


clnot>ea 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


FIG.  170. — Part  of  an  English  eight-century  MS.  (British 
Museum,  Case  C,  No.  68),  enlarged  three  times  linear. 


303 


The  Roman        The  main  types  are  the  "round**  Uncial  and 

Alphabet      Half-Uncial,  commonly  written  with  an  approxi- 

&  its         mately  "  straight  pen." l   They  are  generally  treated 

Derivatives  as  fine  writing  (p.  262),  and  written  between  ruled 
lines :  this  has  a  marked  effect  in  preserving  their 
roundness  (see  p.  414). 

They  are  very  useful  as  copy-book  hands  (see 
p.  70),  for  though  the  smooth  gradation  of  their 
curves,  their  thin  strokes,  and  their  general  elegance 
unfit  them  for  many  practical  purposes,  yet  their 
essential  roundness,  uprightness,  and  formality  afford 
the  finest  training  to  the  penman,  and  prevent  him 
from  falling  into  an  angular,  slanting,  or  lax  hand. 
Their  very  great  beauty,  moreover,  makes  them 
well  worth  practising,  and  even  justifies  their  use 
(in  a  modernised  form)  for  special  MSS.,  for  the 
more  romantic  books — such  as  poetry  and  "  fairy 
tales" — and  generally  where  speed  in  writing  or 
reading  is  not  essential 

With  an  eye  trained  and  a  hand  disciplined  by 
the  practice  of  an  Irish  or  English  Half-Uncial,  or 
a  modified  type,  such  as  is  given  in  fig.  5O>  the 
penman  may  easily  acquire  some  of  the  more 
practical  later  "  slanted- pen  "  types. 


"  SLANTED-PEN        SMALL-LETTERS 

(Typical  Examples : — 

Carlovingian    ninth  -  century    MS. — Fig.    8    (en- 
larged, fig.  171): 

1  The  writing  in  fig.  170  shows  a  slightly  slanted  pen.  To 
make  quite  horizontal  thins  is  difficult,  and  was  probably  never 
done,  but  it  is  worth  attempting  them  nearly  horizontal  for  the 
sake  of  training  the  hand. 

3°4 


English     tenth  -  century    MS. — Plate    Fill,     (en-    The  Roman 


larged,fig.  172): 

English  eleventh  -  century  MS. — Plate  IX.  (en- 
larged,fig.  173): 

Italian  twelfth-century  MS. — Plate  X.  (enlarged, 

fig-  174)- 

The  use  of  the  "  slanted  pen  "  generally  pro- 
duced stronger,  narrower,  and  stiffer  letters.  Its 
effects  are  detailed  in  pp.  43-47,  and  fig.  n,  and 
may  best  be  studied  in  the  tenth-century  example 
(fig.  172 — the  letter  forms  are  described  on  p.  416). 

In  the  Carlovingian  MS. — which  does  not  show 
these  effects  in  any  marked  degree — we  may  note 
the  wide  letter  forms,  the  wide  spacing,  the  long 
stems  (thickened  above  by  additional  strokes),  the 
slight  slope  of  the  letters,  and  the  general  effect  of 
gracefulness  and  freedom  (see  fig.  171).  Carlo- 
vingian MSS.  may  be  said  to  represent  a  sort  of 
mediaeval  copy-books,  and  their  far-reaching  influence 
on  writing  makes  them  of  great  interest  to  the 
modern  penman,  who  would,  moreover,  find  one 
of  these  hands  an  excellent  model  for  a  free 
"formal  hand." 

For  practical  purposes  the  "  slanted-pen  "  letter 
is  generally  superior  to  the  "  straight-pen  "  letter. 
The  "  slanted-pen "  letters  have  greater  strength 
and  legibility,  due  mainly  to  the  presence  of  the 
thick  horizontals — often  equal  in  width  to  the  verti- 
cals. Their  use  saves  both  space  and  time,  as  they 
are  narrower,  and  more  easily  and  freely  written  * 
than  the  straight-pen  forms. 

The  real  importance  to  us  of  these  early  types 

1  NOTE. — Single-line  ruling  is  commonly  used — the  writing 
being  on,  or  a  little  above  or  be/oiv,  the  line:  this  allows  of 
greater  freedom  than  the  double  line  (see  p.  304). 

u  305 


Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


The  Roman  Alphabet 
&  its  Derivatives 


J   I 
lol 


O 

3 


ft 


.s 


c 

3 


306 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


307 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


3 


I 


308 


The  Roman 
<      Alphabet 

&  its 
DerivatiTes 


tnconui 

irgtnfax 
pttret-'O 


FlG.  174. — Part  of  Plate  X.,  enlarged  three  times 
linear  (see  pp.  417-419). 

3°9 


The  Roman  lies,  I  think,  in  their  relation  to  the  Roman  Small- 
Alphabet  Letter  (pp.   418-19   &   429-83),  and    their  great 
&  its  possibilities   of  development    into    modern    formal 
Derivatives  hands  approaching  the  "  Roman  "  type. 


ROMAN    SMALL-LETTERS 

Ex.:  (Italian)  Plates  XIX.,  XX.  (i5th  century)  ; 
figs.  175,  176  (l6th  century)  :  figs.  147,  148  (modern 
MS.). 

The  Roman  Small-Letter  is  the  universally  recog- 
nised type  in  which  the  majority  of  books  and 
papers  are  printed.  Its  form  has  been  in  use  for  over 
400  years  (without  essential  alteration)  and  as  far  as 
we  are  concerned  it  may  be  regarded  as  permanent. 

And  it  is  the  object  of  the  scribe  or  letter-maker 
gradually  to  attain  a  fine,  personal  formal  hand, 
assimilating  to  the  Roman  Small-Letter  ;  a  hand 
against  the  familiar  and  present  form  of  which  no 
allegations  of  unreadableness  can  be  raised,  and  a 
hand  having  a  beauty  and  character  now  absent  or 
wwfamiliar.  The  related  Italic  will  be  mastered  for 
formal  MS.  work  (p.  315),  and  the  ordinary  hand- 
writing improved  (p.  323).  These  three  hands 
point  the  advance  of  the  practical,  modern  scribe. 

The  Roman  Small-Letter  is  essentially  a  pen 
form  (and  preferably  a  "  slanted-pen "  form  ;  p. 
305),  and  we  would  do  well  to  follow  its  natural  de- 
velopment from  the  Roman  Capital — through  Round 
Letters  and  Slanted-Pen  forms — so  that  we  may  arrive 
at  a  truly  developed  and  characteristic  type,  suit- 
able for  any  formal  manuscript  work  and  full  of  sug- 
gestions for  printers  and  letter-craftsmen  generally. 

A  finished  form,  such  as  that  in  Plate  XX. — or 
even  that  of  fig.  175 — would  present  many  diffi- 

310 


&  its 
Derivatiyes 


culties  to  the  unpractised  scribe,  and  one  who  so    The  Roman 
began  would  be  apt  to  remain  a  mere  copyist,  more      Alphabet 
or  less  unconscious  of  the  vitality  and  character  of 
the  letter.     An  earlier  type  of  letter — such  as  that 
in  Plate  VIII. — enables  the  scribe  to  combine  speed 
with  accuracy,  and  fits  him  at  length  to  deal  with 
the  letters  that  represent  the  latest  and  most  formal 
development  of  penmanship. 

And  in  this  connection,  beware  of  practising 
with  a  fine  nib,  which  tends  to  inaccuracy  and  the 
substitution  of  prettiness  for  character.  Stick  to 
definite  pen  strokes,  and  preserve  the  definite  shapes 
and  the  uniformity  of  the  serifs  (p.  324)  :  if  these 
be  made  clumsily,  they  become  clumsy  lumps.  It 
may  be  impossible  always  to  ascertain  the  exact 
forms — especially  of  terminals  and  finishing  strokes 
— for  the  practised  scribe  has  attained  a  great  uni- 
formity and  some  sleight  of  hand  which  cannot  be 
deliberately  copied.  But  —  whatever  the  exact 
forms — we  may  be  sure  that  in  the  best  hands  they 
are  produced  by  uniform  and  proper  pen  strokes. 


ITALICS 

Ex.:  Plate  XXL,  and  figs.  94,  177,  178  (en- 
larged). 

Italics1  closely  resemble  the  Roman  Small-Letters, 
but  are  slightly  narrowed,  slightly  sloped  to  the 

1  It  is  convenient  to  use  the  term  "Italics"  for  both  the 
cursive  formal  writing  and  the  printing  resembling  it.  Italic 
type  was  first  used  in  a  "  Virgil"  printed  by  Aldus  Manutius 
of  Venice  in  1500.  The  type  was  then  called  "  Venetian  "  or 
"Aldine."  It  was  counterfeited  almost  immediately  (in  Ger- 
many and  Holland  it  was  called  "cursive");  Wynkin  de 
Worde  used  it  in  1524.  It  seems  to  have  been  originally  in- 
tended for  printing  entire  Classics,  but  was  afterwards  used 
to  distinguish  portions  of  the  text  (see  also  p.  373). 

311 


&  its 
Derivatives 


Omnes  fch  apfi  et  euangeli 


Omnes{Hh  ddcipli  dm 
Omnesfifhlnocctcs.  orate 
SancfeStepIiane.  era. 
San^lelaurenti.  era. 

Sanctovmc&nti.         ot-a. 

ora 


ora. 

Satic^eblaft.  era. 

S  adH  loa.  et  pau  le       orate. 
Sadi  Cofma  et  damu.  orate. 


FIG.  175.  —  Italian  Prayer  Book;  i6th  century  (see  opp.  /.  6°/.  345) 


3I2 


a 

8 

a 

3 

s 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


313 


&  its 
Derivatives 


The  Roman  right,  and  very  freely  written  (commonly  with  a 
Alphabet  "  slanted  pen  ").  The  serifs  generally  consist  of 
slight  natural  terminal  hooks,  &c.  —  though  in  p  and 
q  a  finishing  stroke  is  sometimes  added.  Ascending 
and  descending  strokes  (in  />,  dy  fy  hy  k,  /,  g,  jy  py  qy  y) 
are  commonly  rather  long,  and  often  end  in  curves, 
sometimes  in  flourishes  (fig.  177). 

bdhilmiuw 

-serif  and  ftowisheJ 


FIG.  177. 

The  lines  of  writing  are  generally  widely  spaced 
—  allowing  for  the  long  stems  :  the  bodies  of  the 
letters  being  narrow  are  generally  rather  closely 
packed,  and  frequently  the  lines  of  writing  appear 

3*4 


as  almost  continuous  light  but  compact  writing,    The  Roman 
while  the  ascenders  and  descenders  and  parts  of  the      Alphabet 
Capitals  may  be  flourished  freely  in  the  spaces  be-         &  its 
tween  the  lines — sometimes  filling  them  with  orna-     Derivatives 
mental   pen   work,  which  contrasts  strongly  with 
the    extreme    plainness     and     regularity    of    the 
bodies. 

Italic  Capitals  are  a  variety  of  the  Roman  Capitals, 
slightly  sloped  (frequently  less  sloped  than  the 
accompanying  small-letters),  and  sometimes  much 
flourished  (fig.  177).  The  types  modelled  on  the 
latter  were  called  by  printers  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  "  Swash  Letters." 

Use  of  Italics. — In  printing  they  served  at  first  to 
mark  such  portions  of  the  text  as — 

Introductions^  f  Quotations , 

Prefaces,        I  and  subsequently  I  *>»l>ha"i»'S>       ,  .    _ 

y   /  >-  j  r  X  words  not  part  of  the  1  ext 

Indexes,         f     were  used  for  1          ^^  ^         in  the 

Not">  ^     Bible,  &c.). 

In  MSS.  when  it  is  not  desirable  to  alter  the 
character,  Red  Writing  (see  p.  130)  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  italics.  Italics — either  in  black  or  red 
— go  best  with  "  Roman  "  characters. 

Like  the  Roman  Small-Letter,  the  Italic  is  a 
generally  recognised  and  accepted  form  :  this  and 
other  considerations,  such  as  the  peculiar  elegance 
and  charm  of  the  letters,  their  formal  relation  to 
modern  handwriting,  their  compactness  and 
economy  of  space  in  the  line,  and  the  fact  that 
they  may  be  written  easily  and  with  extreme 
regularity — being  indeed  the  most  rapid  of  formal 
hands — are  practical  reasons  for  a  careful  study 
of  the  type,  and  justify  the  writing  of  certain 
MS.  books  entirely  in  Italics. 

315 


5 


ti 

U-, 


SEMI-FORMAL   WRITING 

Figs.  179,  1 80,  and  181  are  taken  from  a  six- 
teenth-century Italian  MS.1  written  in  a  semi- 
formal  cursive  hand  in  dark  brown  and  red-brown 
inks  (probably  originally  nearer  black  and  red),  on 
150  leaves  of  fine  paper. 

The  proportions  of  the  Book?  together  with  the 
good  writing,  have  a  very  agreeable  effect,  and  are 
interesting  as  being  used  by  a  writer  over  300  years 
ago.  The  extra  width  of  the  side  margins  may 
have  been  allowed  for  annotations — some  notes 
were  written  in  by  the  scribe  himself. 

Page  =  Il£  inches  high,  8  inches  wide. 

(Inner  (£  inch  +  \  inch  allowed  for  Small  Capitals) 
=  \\  inch  (approximate). 
Top  —  if  inch  (constant). 
Side  —  2f  inch  (approximate). 
Foot  •=.  3  inch  (approximate). 
Writing-Line  Space  nearly  ^inch  high:  length  (varies),  average 

4  inches. 
Text  Column  nearly  6£  inches  high,  consisting  of  22  lines  of  MS. 

Character  of  the  Writing. — The  good  shapes  of 
the  letters,  their  great  uniformity,  and  their  easy 
yet  formal  arrangement,  mark  this  MS.  as  the  work 
of  a  skilful  penman.  But,  while  pen  character  of 
a  sort  is  very  evident,  the  writing  approaches  the 
stylographic  (apparently  a  rather  narrow  blunt  nib 
was  used),  and  the  absence  of  definite  thicks  and 
thins  distinguishes  it  from  all  the  formal  hands 
hitherto  discussed  :  it  may  conveniently  be  termed 
Semi-formal. 

1  The  Book   is  a  catalogue  of  early   Roman    inscriptions  : 
apparently  a  written  copy  of  a  printed  book. 

2  With  a  sheet  of  paper  11^  inches  by  16  inches  the  student 
might  reconstruct  these. 

31? 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


The  Roman 

Alphabet  M4        ^ 

&its  „  £      <        * 

Derivatives  >-  n.V   '•  C  .  •  W 

f .  >  9**  *""i 


^  >  "*  X 

c*    C    > 


^  ^  •"*     il     iZ  c^X 

s££°2^^<<- 

s^r:^R^§^^ 


.          *O          ^          -S          Q 

rt     ^     o     w     ^ 

W       M       O       Z      to 


j  s    „  ?  ^  M  . 

w  *    ^    ?   ^    w 


318 


u 

* 


N     -    *>' 

^*  I  r^  i 

~  J  Li -I 

r. 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

and  its 
Derivatives 


••til'hM  j 

-  i-^Ll  i  J  >7*  J 

*  14^ 


3^9 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Deriratives 


W< 
III 

£  c 

*        h* 

•*    P. 

-J     w 


5  5 


5  S 

S  * 

c  w 


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c  <  5 


H  2 

CD  O 

>*  K 

-^  2; 


320 


Construction. — The    rapidity    and   uniformity    of   The  Roman 
this  writing  are  largely  due  to  an  extremely  easy      Alphabet 
zigzag  movement  of  the  pen,  such  as  is  natural          &  its 
in  writing  my  »,  and  u — the  final  upstroke  usually    Derivatives 
running  on  into  the  next  letter.     Note  particularly 
that  the  round  letters  c,  d^  *,  g,  0,  q  generally  begin 
with  a  nearly  straight  down  stroke — like  the  first 
part  of  u — to  which  tops  are  added  (see  fig.   182). 


winu  T 


constructon 
of  stems  3. 


N 


Smi-firmA 


6 

FIG.  182. 

In  the  case  of  a,  the  first  stroke  curves  forward  to 
meet  the  second. 

x  321 


The  Roman  In  the  straight-stemmed  capitals  B,  D,  E,  F,  H, 

Alphabet  I,  L,  M,  N,  P,  R,  and  T,  the  first  stroke  is  made 

&  its  -\ 

Derivatives  rather  like  an   I  (showing  the  tendency  to  a  zigzag) 

the  foot  of  which  is  generally  crossed  horizontally 
by  a  second  stroke  making  a  form  resembling  J  — 
on  this  as  a  base,  the  rest  of  the  letter  is  formed 
(see  fig.  1 82).  This  tends  to  preserve  the  uniformity 
of  the  letters  :  and  gives  a  fine  constructive  effect, 

as,  for  example,  in  the  letter  ^\ . 

General  Remarks. — The  semi-formal  nature  of 
such  a  MS.  would  seem  to  permit  of  a  good  quill — 
not  necessarily  sharp — being  used  with  the  utmost 
freedom  and  all  reasonable  personal  sleight  of  hand ; 
of  soft  tinted  inks — such  as  browns  and  brown- 
reds  ;  of  an  ww-ruled  page  (a  pattern  page  ruled  dark, 
being  laid  under  the  writing  paper,  will,  by  showing 
through,  keep  the  writing  sufficiently  straight),  and  of  a 
minimum  of  precision  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
text.  And  in  this  freedom  and  informality  lie  the 
reasons  for  and  against  the  use  of  such  a  hand. 
There  is  a  danger  of  its  becoming  more  informal 
and  degenerating  because  it  lacks  the  effect  of  the 
true  pen  in  preserving  form.1  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  combines  great  rapidity  and  freedom  with 
beauty  and  legibility :  few  printed  books  could 
,  compete  in  charm  with  this  old  "  catalogue," 
which  took  the  scribe  but  little  longer  to  write 
than  we  might  take  in  scribbling  it. 

Many  uses  for  such  a  hand  will  suggest  them- 
selves.    Semi-formal  documents  which   require  to 

1  Practising  a  more  formal  hand  as  a  corrective  would  prevent 
this. 
322 


be  neatly  written  out,  and  Books  and  Records  of   The  Roman 
which  only  one  or  two  copies  are  required,  and      Alphabet 
even  Books  which  are  worthy  to  be — but  never         &  its 
are — printed,  might,  at  a  comparatively  low  cost,     Derivatives 
be  preserved  in  this  legible  and  beautiful  form. 

It  suggests  possibilities  for  an  improvement  in 
the  ordinary  present-day  handwriting — a  thing 
much  to  be  desired,  and  one  of  the  most  practical 
benefits  of  the  study  of  calligraphy.  The  practical 
scribe,  at  any  rate,  will  prove  the  advantages  of 
being  a  good  all-round  penman. 


OF    FORMAL    WRITING    GENERALLY 

On  Copying  a  Hand. — Our  intentions  being  right 
(viz.  to  make  our  work  essentially  readable)  and 
our  actions  being  expedient  (viz.  to  select  and  copy 
the  simple  forms  which  have  remained  essentially 
the  same,  leaving  the  complex  forms  which  have 
passed  out  of  use — see  pp.  195-6),  we  need  not  vex 
ourselves  with  the  question  of  "  lawfulness."  l 

Where  beautiful  character  is  the  natural  product 
of  a  tool,  any  person  may  at  any  time  give  such 
character  to  a  useful  form,  and  as  at  this  time  a 
properly  cut  and  handled  pen  will  produce  letters 
resembling  those  of  the  early  MSS.,  we  may  take 
as  models  such  early,  simple  pen-forms  as  have  re- 
mained essentially  the  same?  and  copy  them  as  closely 
as  we  can  while  keeping  them  exact  and  formal. 

Finally,  personal  quality  is  essential  to  perfect 
workmanship,  but  that  is  the  natural  and  gradual — 

1  The  Law  fulfils  itself :  that  which  we  must  not  copy  is  that 
which  we  cannot  copy. 

2  E.g.  the  letters  in  the  tenth-century  English  hand— Plate 
VIII.  :  excepting  the  archaic  long  f  and  round  &  (b,  fig.  183). 

323 


The  Roman  sometimes  scarcely  visible — departure  from  a  model, 

Alphabet      that  comes  of  practice  and  time. 
&  its  Forms  of  Letters  :  component  pen-strokes. — In  a  good 

Derivatives  hand  the  chief  component  strokes — stems,  bows, 
and  serifs — are  repeated  again  and  again  (see  pp. 
244,  254) — this  is  essential  to  the  uniform  character 
and  the  quickness  of  the  writing.  When  sub- 
stituting a  new  for  an  old  letter  a  naturally  used 
pen  will  produce  such  common  pen-strokes,  giving 
the  desired  "  family  likeness "  to  the  new  letter l 

ft  fig- 183). 

Proportion  2  of  Thick  Strokes. — The  broader  the 
thick  stroke  is  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  a 
letter,  the  more  the  form  of  the  letter  is  controlled 
and  affected  by  the  pen  (c,  fig.  183).  For  training 
and  practice,  therefore,  the  wide  nib  is  the  most 
useful.  A  narrower  nib  (d  or  e)  allows  of  more 
freedom  and  variety,  and  there  is  a  great  charm  in 
slender  lettering — this  the  trained  scribe  may  essay 
(see  Plate  XX.,  and  p.  482). 

Proportion  2  of  Stem  Height. — The  character  of  a 
writing  depends  very  much  on  whether  the  stems 
are  short,  medium,  or  long.  The  stems  of  b  and  p 
may  be  as  short  as  half  the  height  of  the  bodies 
(/>  %•  J^3)  j  a  medium  stem  for  ordinary  use  might 
be  two-thirds  of,  or  equal  to,  the  height  of  the 
body  (g).  Stems  may  be  drawn  out  to  almost  any 

1  The  propriety  of  the  actual  form  of  the  new  letter  will 
largely  depend  on  the  scribe's  knowledge  of  the  development  of 
that  particular   letter  and    its   component  parts  (comp.  the  in- 
teresting development  of  g,  sketched   in   figs.   3   &   183,   but 
note  correction  of  Ex.  173  in  Addenda,  p.  z6). 

2  The  proportions  of  the  thick  strokes,  stem  heights,   &c.,  in  a 
given  hand    need   not    be  exactly  followed,  but  it  should    be 
recognised  that  any  alteration  in  these   •will  inevitably  alter  the 

forms  and  the  character  of  the  letters  (fig.  183,  and  pp.  84  &  26). 

324 


/-r^  '/•""/•  r*  *    I   ^e  R°man 

\Dcvelopmmt  of  g:  from  G .  see  ^3-1    A1Phabet 


169.  170. 171    ijr2    73.  <;4- 


Derivatives 


FIG.  183. 


325 


The  Roman  length,  and  may  constitute  a  decorative  feature  of 

Alphabet  the  writing,  as   in   the  Anglo-Saxon l   MS.,  Plate 

&  its  IX.     (See  p.  331,  and  fig.  188.) 
Derivatives         Distinct  Lines  of  Writing. — The  line — especially 


Uudacr 


X. 


itiitllit 


XV. 


catorum 

xvi. 

FIG.  184. 
in  MS.  books — is  really  a  more  important  unit  than 

1  In  English  so  many  ascent/ing  and  descending  letters  are  used, 
that  it  might  be  the  best  and  most  natural  treatment  of  these 
to  make  them  a  marked  feature  of  the  writing  (see  also  "  Fine 
Writing,"  pp.  261-63).  Note,  in  this  connection,  that  our  a  b  C 
has  been  developed  as  a  Latin  alphabet,  and  that  the  evenness 
of  Latin  MS.  is  largely  due  to  the  infrequence  of  tailed  letters. 
326 


&  its 
Derivatives 


the  page  ;  and  the  whole  question  of  the  arrange-    The  Roman 
ment  of  Lettering  hinges  on  the  right  treatment  of     Alphabet 
the  lines.     One  is  particularly  struck  by  the  dis- 
tinctness of  the  lines  of  writing  in  the  old  MSS., 
due  mainly  to — 

(a)  The  binding  together  of  the  letters  in  the  line — 
commonly   by  strong  serifs  or  heavy  "  shoulders "   and 
"feet"  (see  figs,  n,  184,  and  p.  414). 

(b)  Packing  the  letters  well  together  (see  pp.  7  7, 262). 

(c)  Spacing   the    lines   sufficiently    apart    (see    pp. 
262-265). 

It  is  a  good  rule  (especially  when  practising)  to 
space  the  lines  fairly  widely.  Really  fine  writing 
shows  generally  to  greater  advantage  if  not  too 
much  crowded,  and  there  is  more  danger  of  making 
reading  hard  by  crowding  the  lines,  than  by  crowd- 
ing the  words  (see  fig.  156). 

Whatever  mode  of  treatment  be  followed,  each 
line  should  be  written  with  as  much  freedom  as 
possible,  the  simplest  straightforward  writing  being 
preferable  to  that  which  is  over-arranged. 


DECORATIVE    CONTRASTS 

The  decorative  treatment  of  lettering  generally 
involves  contrasts  of  size,  weighty  colour,  or  form — 
that  is,  of  large  and  small,  heavy  and  light,  variously 
coloured,  or  variously  shaped  letters.  As  a  general 
rule,  marked  contrasts  are  best ;  a  slight  contrast 
may  fail  of  its  effect  and  yet  be  sufficiently  notice- 
able to  give  an  unpleasant  appearance  of  irregu- 
larity. 

Contrasts  of  Colour  (see  pp.  1 44,  1 80). — Note  that, 
while  it  is  convenient  to  distinguish  "colour" — 
as  redy  blue,  green,  &c. — weight  strictly  involves 

327 


The  Roman  colour  :    built-up   or    heavy   letters  in   black  show 

Alphabet      extra  black  beside  lighter  writing,  while  the  latter 

&  its          appears  grey  in  comparison  (see  figs.  197,  186);  in 

Derivatives     re(l  writing  the  heavy  letters  appear  red,  the  lighter 

letters,  pink  (see  fig.  90). 

Contrast  of  Size.  —  The  simplest  decorative  con- 
trast is  that  of  LARGE1  letters  with  SMALLER 
letters  (fig.  185)  ;  the  strokes  being  of  equal,  or 


CONTRXST 

\  OF  SIZE.-HARMONY 
OFFDRMAVEIGHT 


FIG.  185. 

nearly  equal,  weight,  there  is  an  harmonious  even- 
ness of  tone  throughout.  Where  the  large  letters 
are  very  much  larger,  their  parts  are  made  somewhat 
heavier  to  keep  their  apparent  "  weight  "  approxi- 
mately equal  (see  p.  486).  This  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  treatments  for  inscriptions  generally  (see 
p.  299,  and  Plates  V.  and  XXIV.). 

Contrasts  of"  weight  "  and  size.  —  In  simple  writing 
these  are  obtained  by  using  two  sizes  of  pen  —  the 
small,  light  letters  being  used  for  the  bulk  of  the 

1  Where  there  is  only  a  slight  difference  in  size,  the  effect  is 
improved  by  using  a  different/on*  or  colour  (see  pp.  130,  345). 

328 


text,  the  larger  heavier  letters  being  used  for  occa-    The  Roman 
sional  words  or  lines  (or  vice  versa).    This  is  a  very      Alphabet 
effective  simple  treatment  for  MSS.  (fig.  186).  &  its 

Derivative* 

aftwlinescf 
muchlamer 


Writi 

1  / 

simple,  contrast:  of  size  #  colour. 
TlieUmcrvmtuvris  convenient- 
ly written  bc&vem  every  other"-' 
pair  o£  writing-lines.  It  may  t>c 
more  dconativefy  treated 


FIG.  1  86.  —  (6"«  also  Jig.  191.) 

The  occasional  letters  may  be  more  decoratively 
treated  (see  Responses  and  Rubrics,  p.  345)  by  intro- 
ducing the  further  contrasts  of  colour  (p.  144)  or 
form  (p.  336). 

329 


The  Roman        Contrasts    of  form,  "  weight,"    and   size. — These 
Alphabet      are  generally  obtained  by  the  use  of  large  built-up 

&  its  X^^N 

Derivatives     |        aPita's>   together    with    a    simple- written    (or 
ordinarily  printed)  text  (fig.   187). 

bNTRAST  OF  FORM, 

W£1GHT AND  SIZE; 
^(USUALLY)  COLOUR 

FIG.  187. 

A  marked  contrast  usually  being  desirable,  the 
built-up  capitals  (especially  if  black)  are  kept  quite 
distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  text  (see  fig.  197)  :  if 
they  are  scattered  among  the  other  letters  they  are 
apt  to  show  like  blots  and  give  an  appearance  of 
irregularity  to  the  whole.  As  a  rule,  the  efFect  is 
improved  by  the  use  of  red  or  another  colour  (see 

figs-  9J>  93)- 

Contrast    of  form — for    decorative    purposes — is 

usually  combined  with  contrast  of  weight  (e.g. 
"  Gothic,"  heavier,  p.  336)  or  size  (e.g.  Capitals, 
larger,  p.  371). 

ORNAMENTAL    LETTERS 

(See  Chaps.  VII.,  VIII.,  X.,  XII.,  &  pp.  34,  251,  26) 

To  give  ornament  its  true  value  we  must  dis- 
tinguish between  ordinary  occasions  when  simplicity  and 
directness  are  required,  and  special  occasions  when  elabo- 
ration is  desirable  or  necessary. 

The  best  way  to  make  ornamental  letters  is  to 

330 


&  its 
Derivatires 


develop  them  from  the  simpler  forms.     Any  plain    The  Roman 
type  may  be  decoratively  treated  for  special  purposes      Alphabet 
— some  part  or  parts  of  the  letters  usually  being  ration- 
ally "  exaggerated"  (p.  252).    Free  stems,  "  branches" 
tails,  &c.,  may  be  drawn  out,  and  terminals  or  serifs 
may  be  decorated  or  flourished  (fig.  203). 

Built-Up  Forms. — Even  greater  license  (see  fig. 
161)  is  allowed  in  Built-Up  Letters — as  they  are 
less  under  the  control  of  the  tool  (p.  292) — and 
their  natural  decorative  development  tends  to  pro- 
duce a  subordinate  simple  line  decoration  beside  or 
upon  their  thicker  parts  (fig.  189  &  p.  26).  In  MSS. 
the  typical  built-up,  ornamental  form  is  the  "  Versal" 
(see  Chap.  VII.),  which  developed — or  degenerated 
— into  the  "Lombardic"  (fig.  i).  Here  again  it  is 
preferable  to  keep  to  the  simpler  form  and  to  develop 
a  natural  decorative  treatment  of  it  for  ourselves. 

"Black  Letter"  or  "Gothic,"  still  in  use  as  an 
ornamental  letter  (fig.  190),  is  descended  from  the 
fifteenth-century  writing  of  Northern  Europe  (Plate 
XVIL).  A  better  model  may  be  found  in  the 
earlier  and  more  lively  forms  of  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  century  writing  (fig.  191). 

Rightly  made,  and  used,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  forms  of  lettering — and  therefore  of 
ornament — and  besides  its  ornamental  value,  there 
is  still  in  the  popular  fancy  a  halo  of  romance  about 
"  black  letter,"  which  may  fairly  be  taken  into 
account.  Its  comparative  illegibility,  however, — 
due  mainly  to  the  substitution  of  straight  for  curved 
strokes — debars  it  from  ordinary  use.1  Though  its 

1  Compare  monotone  and  monotone.  For  general  pur- 
poses, therefore,  and  particularly  for  forming  a  good  hand,  the 
earlier  tcripts  are  to  be  preferred  (or  the  late  Italian):  even 
twelfth-century  "Gothic"  writing  is  hardly  readable  enough 
for  "  practical  "  purposes. 

331 


The  Rt>man 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


I   TTtescri/Toit  usit- 
tnxnr  sterna* 


te  top  line  of  wnttna-  ntay 
ascencknr  ftourusKcd'tnto  top 
wKik  in  die  fixrtrmatxjin  die  ctcscoSecr 
tke  fcot-Une 


332 


FIG.  1 88. — (See  also  figs.  125  a«</  150.) 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


ow  M  se. 

J  J  and'hutte® 


-r* ~  /^v  • /i\  ^o ""**• 

^QQ3k^ 

I  i  C_ ,  I.T.fe 


HAHNfi 


form*  lllustndyt 
of  the  oriainS  cf 
Simple  O&uvmntal 

LETTERS, 


FIG.  189.— (See  also  Plates  VI. ,  XL,  XXII., 
figs>  79  0^84,  and  p.  420.) 


333 


The  Roman 
Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


FIG.  190. — Ordinary  Modern  "B/ack  Letter"  Type  (see p.  331). 

334 


The  Roman 

.5      Alphabet 

&  its 
Derivatives 


335 


The  Roman  distinction  in  form  and  colour  (p.  327)  from  ordinary 

Alphabet  small  lettering,  make  it  useful  in  arresting  atten- 

&  its  tion  ;  as  in  a  legal  document,  where  the  clauses  are 

Derivatives  marked  by 

&c. 

Its  most  effective  use,  however,  is  as  pure  orna- 
ment— when  it  does  not  matter  whether  the  words 
are  easily  read  or  not.  For  mottoes,  &c.,  painted 
or  carved  on  walls  or  furniture,  and  for  ornamental 
borders  round  tapestry  hangings,  tombs,  book- 
covers,  bowls,  flagons,  plates,  &c.,  bands  of  such 
ornamental  lettering  are  extremely  decorative  (see 
footnote  (2),  p.  255,  &  also  p.  364). 


FIG.  191  a. — Shield  of  Arms  of  Earl  de  Warrenne,  Castle 
Acre  Priory,  Norfolk  (Gold  and  blue  chequers,  diapered — see 
p.  215)  :  reproduced,  by  permission,  from  Bou! ell's  "  English 
Heraldry,"  No.  68. 

336 


APPENDIX    A 

CHAPTER    XVI 

SPECIAL    SUBJECTS 

Divers  Uses  of  Lettering — MS.  Books,  &c. — Binding 
MSS.  (with  Note  by  Douglas  Cockerel!)— Broad- 
sides, Wall  Inscriptions,  &c. — Illuminated  Ad- 
dresses, &c. — Monograms  &  Devices — Title  Pages 
— Lettering  for  Reproduction — Printing — Inscrip- 
tions on  Metal,  Stone,  Wood,  &c. — Of  Inscriptions 
Generally — Bibliography,  &c. 

DIVERS   USES   OF   LETTERING 

The  following  list  of  some  of  the  uses  of  hand-       Special 
made  lettering,  though  necessarily  very  brief,  will       Subjects 
perhaps  suggest  possibilities  both  to  the  student  and 
the  craftsman : — 

MS.  BOOKS,  &C.  :  (see  pp.  98,  341,  &  Author's  Preface). 

(i)  Preferably  "the  best." 
)  That  which  is  worthy  of  calli- 
graphy. 
(3)  That   which    is   the   "  favour- 


Fine  Literature 


ite  "  of  the  owner  of  the  book. 
Poetry  is  differently  treated   from 
prose  (see  pp.  95,  263,  371,  138), 
and  should  have  extra  wide  side 
margins  when  possible  (p.  483). 

Y  337 


Special 
Subjects 


Single  Poems, 


Tracts  or  Treatises  : 


Church  Services  : 


Gospels  &  Psalters  : 


Almanacks  : 


{Poems,  cards,  hymns,  &c.  (see  pp. 
137-139,  &  Poetry,  above),  prefer- 
ably in  the  form  of  small  books. 

{Copies  might  be  preserved  (p.  313) 
in  good  writing  (instead  of  Type- 
writing), 

fPrayers,    Communion,    Marriage, 
|     &c.  (pp.  140,  144,  345). 

NOTE. — The  Psalms,  &c.,  may  be 
treated  as  poetry  (as  in  the 
"  Revised  Version  ")  or  as  prose 
(as  in  the  "Authorised  Ver- 
sion "),  see  Fine  Literature  above. 

'These  may  be  very  varied  ;  contain- 
ing vacations,  terms,  sessions ; 
public,  church,  or  family  festi- 
vals, personal  memoranda  or 
topical  quotations.  They  offer 
great  opportunities  for  heraldic 
or  symbolic  ornament  (such  as 
coats  -  of  -  arms,  astronomical 
signs,  &c.). 


Dedications ,  &c.t  in 
Books  : 

(Lettering  on  Archi- 
tects' Plans  :  see 
MAPS  &  PLANS, 
P-  339) 

"  Copy- Books  "  .- 

BROADSIDES  : 

Notices  : 
Quotations  : 
Church  Texts, 


Family  Trees 
grees  : 

338 


Pedi-\ 


These  may  be  on  a  parchment  leaf 
inserted  and  securely  glued  into 
the  beginning  (preferably  bound 
up  with  book),  or  be  written  on 
a  fly-leaf.  Annotations,  extracts, 
&c.,  may  be  written  in  colour  in 
printed  books  (p.  144). 

(see  below). 

f  Sheets  printed  (or  written)  on  one 
\     side  :  see  p.  350. 

(Posters,  Placards,  Hand-bills,  &c.). 
(Texts,  Mottoes,  &c.)  (see  p.  336). 
(The  Creed,  Commandments,  &c.). 
These  may  be  very  decorative — in 

ment.    They  might  also  be  made 
I     in  book  form. 


WALL       INSCRIP-\Carved  or  painted:    see  pp.   350,          Special 
TIONS:  I     375-385,  &  Chapter  XVII.  Subjects 

Public  Notices  :  \  Note  :  on  walls,  plastered,  or  un- 

Lettering  in  Churches,  suited  for  carving,  sgraffito  might 

t.    °  be  used  with  fine  effect. 

^  .  *  .  {Letters  may  also  be  painted  upon 

Lettering  in  Iff  upon\  tiieSj  which  (after  baking)  are 

public  buildings  :       J      cemented  into  the  wall  (p.  377). 


mechanical  reproduction). 


LETTERING   FOR]  See  also 

RE  PRO  DUG- 
TION:  above- 


RE  PRO  DUG-     Msec  P.  365).    J  BROADSIDES, 


( 

.    J 


Printer's     types     and}  (in  woodcut  and  metal:   pp.  365, 

Ornamental  letters  :  /     36?)' 
Title  Pages  :  (see  p.  363). 

Paper  and  other  Book}  (Magazines,  Newspaper-Headings, 
covers  :  Music,  Catalogues,  &c.). 


n/r        c_j   r»r  fS00^,  clear  lettering  may  be  used 

Maps  fy  Plans  :        |     in  these  with  fine  effect. 


I  (preferably     simple,   with    Arms, 

Book  Plates  :  <      Crest,  or  Symbol,  and  suitable 

\     lettering). 

Letter-paper       Head-  |(preferably  in  copper-plate  "  Ro- 
ings9  Cards,  &c.  :  J     man  "  and  "Italic  "). 

Bill    Heads,     Receipt\  (preferably  in  copper-plate  or  type  : 
Forms,  &c.  :  )     see  p.  365). 

Certificates  :  j  (Testimonials,  &c.)    The  plainer 

{      these  are  made,  the  better. 

Programmes,    Menus,  ~\  ,~.    .  .     0    . 

g      .     CJ  '  V  (Christmas  cards,  &c.). 

Cards,  &c.  :  ) 

Almanacks  :  (see  above). 

339 


Special  MS.  Books  and  "copy- (*0**{^  m|Sht  ^  reproduced  by 

o   t_-  j    ,,  •*      •!      copper-plate     if    written     well 

Subjects  booh":  \     enough  (p.  367). 

/Better  lettering  in  these  would  not 

...  -   .        J      only  mitigate  many  eyesores,  but 

Advertisements, &c.  :\     would   probably  attract  by  its 

v     novelty  (see  p.  351). 

ENGRAVING,  \sfc.  :  (see  PP.  364,  365,  375). 

D  c-»  f  ("  Brasses,"    Name-plates,     Door- 

Brasses,  &c.  :  |l   plates,  '&Ci). 

Punches  :  (for  naming,  numbering,  &c.). 

Utensils  :  (Bowls,  flagons,  plates,  &c.). 

Ornaments  :  (Jewellery,  &c.). 

f  (for  coins,  medals,  &c.,  and  for  em- 
Die  Sinking  :  \      bossed     letter-paper    headings, 

I     &c.). 

INSCRIPTIONS  IN\ 

STONE  e-T  WOOD  .-/<see  pp-  375-385.  &  Chap.  XVII.). 

On      Monuments      £5*\Also     on    mile-stones,    boundary 
Buildings  :  )     stones,  bridges,  &c. 

Tombstones  : 
Foundation  Stones  : 
Memorial  Tablets  : 

"SIGN  WRITING"  :  (see  PP.  350,  376). 

Signs  :  (for  stations,  inns,  shops,  &c.). 

Shop  Fascia*)  &c.  : 

Names )  &c.  :  (on  doors  &  on  carts,  coaches,  &c.). 

Notice  Boards  : 

«  Ticket  Writing  ": 


EMBROIDERY, 


see  remarks  on  built-up  forms,  p.  292: 
and    Chapter   XII.    [on    Letter- 


c  .  -^      ing,   &c.j  of  "  Embroidery  and 


.]  of  "Eml 

Tapestry  Weaving,"  by  Mrs.  A. 
H.  Christie,  in  this  Series. 

Decoration  for  hangings,  (p.  3  36  )  :  Marking  clothes, 
340 


All  the  arts  employ  lettering  directly  or  indirectly,       Special 
in  fine  decoration  or  for  simple  service.  Subjects 

The  following  list  of  ancient   uses  is  interest- 
ing : !— 

"I.    TITULI 

I  Dedicatory  and  Votive  Inscriptions  (Tituli  Sacri). 

^  Sepulchral  Inscriptions  (Tituli  Sepulchrales). 

3  Honorary  Inscriptions  (Tituli  Honorarit). 

4  Inscriptions  on  Public  Works  (Tituli  Operum  Publicorum). 

5  Inscriptions  on  Movable  Objects  (Inttrvmentum). 

II.     INSTRUMENTA 

I.  Laws  (Leges  et  Plebi  Scita). 

z.  Decrees  of  the  Senate  (Senatut  Consulta). 

3.  Imperial  Documents  (Inttrumenta  Imperttorum). 

4.  Decrees  of  Magistrates  (Decreta  Afag'utratuum). 

5.  Sacred  and  Public  Documents  (Acta  Sacra  et  Publica). 

6.  Private  Documents  (Acta  Privata). 

7.  Wall  Inscriptions  (Inscriptiones  Parietariae). 

8.  Consular  Diptychs  (Diptycha  Consularia)." 


MS.    BOOKS,   &C. 

Books  in  the  making — as  compared  with  ordinary 
inscriptions — are  capable  of  great  compression  or 
expansion,  and  may  be  said  to  have  a  quality  of 
elasticity.  Nearly  all  other  ordinary  inscriptions  are 
set  inscriptions  (p.  350),  requiring  a  given  number  of 
words  to  be  set  out  in  a  given  space.  But  in  books, 
while  it  is  convenient  that  the  treatment  of  the 
text  should  conform  generally  to  a  chosen  size  of 
page  (p.  103),  the  contents  of  the  page  may  vary 
according  to  the  letter-form  and  the  spacing  (pp. 
107,  262),  and  the  number  of  the  pages  is  not 
definitely  limited,  so  that  another  page,  or  a 

l  p.  214,  J.  C.  Egbert's  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Latin 
Inscriptions," — 1896. 

341 


Special  number  of  additional  pages,  may  always  be  taken 
Subjects  to  complete  the  text. 

The  size  of  page,  margin,  and  writing  having 
been  settled  (see  Chap.  VI.) — and  the  pages  ruled 
— the  penman  writes  out  the  text  with  the  utmost 
freedom,  not  stopping  to  make  fine  calculations, 
but  leaving  such  spaces  and  lines,  for  Initials, 
Headings,  &c.,  as  his  fancy  and  common-sense 
dictate,  and  letting  the  text — or  its  divisions — 
smoothly  flow  on  from  page  to  page  till  a  natural 
termination  is  reached.  And  if  the  terminal  page 
has  only  one  or  two  lines  on  it,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  attempt  a  balance  with  the  previous  page — the 
book  or  chapter l  ends  just  there,  for  the  good 
reason  that  there  is  no  more  of  it. 

Colophons,  Tail-pieces,  &c.  (see  p.  142),  make  a 
pleasant  finish,  and  may  complete  the  page  or  not 
as  convenient. 

Planning :  Sections  and  Pages. — Calculations  of 
the  amount  of  text,  of  the  number  of  sections  or 
pages  required,  and  so  on,  are  useful,  and  planning 
the  pages  may  be  convenient — for  example,  one 
or  more  of  the  verses  of  a  poem,  or  a  given  number 
of  words,  may  be  allotted  to  the  page — provided 
always  that  the  scribe  preserves  his  freedom,  and 
treats  each  case  on  its  merits.  If  he  think  it  most 
suitable  to  devote  a  complete  page  to  each  para- 
graph, he  may  do  so  in  spite  of  its  resulting  in  the 
pages  all  being  of  different  lengths. 

The  one  general  limitation  which  it  is  proper  to 

1  If  there  is  sufficient  room  left  on  the  terminal  page  for  a 
clearly  marked  beginning  (such  as  a  decorative  initial),  the  next 
chapter  may  begin  there,  and  so  fill  the  page — but  generally 
there  is  no  objection  to  leaving  blank  what  the  text  has  failed 
to  fill. 

342 


observe  is  that  of  the  Writing-line — its  length  *  and        Special 
spacing — and  to  this  may  be  added  the  desirability       Subjects 
of  beginning  the  text  of  every  page  on  the  first  or 
head  line.2     For  most  of  us   it  is  not  practically 
possible  to  do  without  the  aid  of  the  writing-lines 
— which  really  lead,  through  uniformity,  to  greater 
freedom — though  a  book  written   without  them 3 
might  be  as  beautiful  as  any  ruled  manuscript. 

Marginal  Lines. — These,  the  terminals  of  the 
writing-lines,  are  frequently  made  double,  with 
about  \  inch  between  (see  Plates  XX.  and  XV.). 
On  the  left  this  space  is  utilised  for  marginal 
capitals,  or  is  left  blank;  on  the  right  the  first 
line  acts  as  a  warning  mark  and  the  normal 
termination  of  the  text,  the  second  as  a  barrier 
beyond  which  the  writing  should  not  go.  The 
double  lines,  in  being  more  obvious  than  single 
lines,  are  also  more  effective  in  "straightening" 
the  page  (p.  109) :  presumably  for  this  reason  the 
two  upper  and  two  lower  writing-lines  were  often 
ruled  from  edge  to  edge  of  the  page  (see  Plate  XL). 

Ruling. — Marginal  and  writing-lines,  once  ruled, 
are  to  be  left  intact,  and  may  be  regarded  as  actual 
component  parts  of  the  finished  pages.  They  are 
best  made  with  a  hard  blunt  point  (p.  1 08)— -the 
furrows  so  made  give  an  interesting  character, 
almost  a  "  texture,"  to  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
page.  But  they  may  be  ruled  with  a  fine  lead 
pencil,  or  with  a  fine  pen  and  faint  black  or 

1  The  line  need  not  always  be  Jilted  by  the  writing  (p.  425). 

2  It  would  not  be  necessary  for  the  first  page  of  a  chapter 
to  have  the  ordinary  dropped  head  and  blank  upper  space  if  a 
fine  initial  or  decorative  heading  were  used  to  mark  it. 

8  Some  of  the  books  engraved  by  William  Blake  suggest  pos- 
sibilities of  such  ^-conventional  treatment,  both  of  writing  and 
"  illumination  "  (see  also  p.  21). 

343 


Special        coloured  inks.     Inked  or  coloured  lines,  however, 
Subjects       are  not  generally  written  upon  (see  footnote,  p.  305), 
but  between  (see  Plates  XIII.,  XVIL,  XX.,  &c.). 

Correcting  Mistakes.  —  A  neatly  made  rather  small 
letter  above  and  a  "  carat  "  below  (as  in  ordinary 
writing)  may  be  used  for  an  omission  (fig.  192). 


makfdrur 


FIG.  192. 

A  superfluous  letter  may  be  neatly  struck  out. 
Erasures  are  usually  unsatisfactory,  and  a  simple, 
unostentatious  correction,  besides  disarming  criti- 
cism, is  in  accordance  with  the  proper  freedom  of 
the  craft  (see  p.  174). 

Annotations,  &c.,  preferably  in  smaller  coloured 
writing,  are  very  decorative  in  the  broader  margins 
(pp.  144,  315). 

Special  Books.  —  A  MS.  book  is  necessarily  unique, 
and  some  special  or  personal  interest  —  either  of  the 
craftsman  (see  p.  142)  or  his  "client"  —  inevitably 
attaches  to  it.  This  may  affect  its  size  and  form, 
the  treatment  of  the  text,  and  the  decoration  and 
construction  generally  (see  p.  100).  Every  legiti- 
mate opportunity  of  adding  to  its  individual 
character  should  be  taken  by  the  scribe  and 
illuminator. 

344 


Fig.   175  and  Plate  XX.  are  both  taken  from        Special 
private  prayer  books  or  psalters  ;  in  each  the  name       Subjects 
of  the  owner  (e.g.  "  Euanzelista  famulo  tuo"  Plate 
XX.)    is    frequently    inserted.       Plates    XV.    and 
XXII.  are  also  taken  from  specially  commissioned 
MSS.,   and    many   evidences   of  their   ownership, 
such  as  portraits  or  coats-of-arms,  form  part  of  the 
decoration  of  such  books. 

Church  Services,  &c. — (For  a  special  church  or 
person.)  Church  uses  arc  so  varied,  that  it  is  most 
important  to  ascertain  the  custom,  use,  or  taste  of 
the  persons  concerned — especially  as  to  the  order 
of,  and  the  introduction  or  omission  of,  certain 
words,  paragraphs,  or  parts,  the  colours  used  in  the 
text,  the  notation  of  the  music — and  the  manner 
in  which  the  book  will  be  used. 

A  service  book  for  the  use  of  a  priest  gives 
prominence  to  the  parts  in  which  he  is  concerned 
— the  responses1  may  be  smaller,  and  different  in 
form  or  colour.  The  rubrics — in  red  (see  pp.  140, 
144) — are  kept  quite  distinct,  and  may  form  a  very 
decorative  feature.  For  a  private  person  the  other 
parts — such  as  are  said  by  the  congregation — might 
be  specially  marked.  In  either  case  a  certain 
amount  of  planning — e.g.  completing  prayers,  &c., 
in  an  opening,  to  avoid  turning  over — may  be 
justified  by  its  convenience  to  the  reader.  Should 
very  careful  planning  ever  be  required,  a  pattern- 
book  may  be  made,  having  the  contents  of  each 
page  roughly  indicated  in  it. 

Wedding  Service  Books,  &c. — The    interest  and 

1  The  distinction  in  the  Prayer  Book  between  "Amen  "  and 
"Amen" — used  as  a  response — is  best  marked  by  the  sign  R 
(for  Responsum)  in  red,  placed  before  the  latter,  as :  R  Amen 
(see  pp.  144,  15). 

345 


Special  value  is  enhanced  if  the  book  is  specially  prepared 
Subjects  — containing  the  proper  names  and  dates,  and  only 
the  special  psalms,  hymns,  prayers,  homilies,  &c., 
which  will  be  used.  Dated  pages  may  be  provided 
at  the  end  of  the  book  for  the  signatures  of  the 
"  friends  and  neighbours  "  of  the  principals. 

BINDING    MSS. 

MSS.  should  be  bound  without  delay  in  order  to 
complete  and  protect  them. 

To  bind  books  in  stiff  boards,  in  leather,  requires 
considerable  practice  and  skill,  but  a  very  effective 
limp  vellum  cover  can  be  made  by  the  scribe  himself, 
who,  in  binding  his  own  books,  will  learn  to  think 
of  the  binding  as  a  part  of  the  book,  and  to  allow  for 
it  in  the  writing  and  planning  (see  p.  106). 

The  following  note *  on  covering  books  in  limp 
vellum  is  specially  contributed  by  Mr.  Douglas 
Cockerell  :— 

"  How  to  cover  a  look  in  a  limp  vellum  cover  without 
using  special  appliances. 

"  Cut  four  strips  of  stiff  vellum  f  inch  wide  and  about 
four  inches  long.  On  these  slips  you  will  sew  the  sections 
of  your  book. 

"  Add  to  your  book  a  plain  section  at  either  end ; 2 
vellum  for  a  vellum  book,  paper  lor  a  paper  book. 
Knock  up  the  backs  of  the  sections  squarely,  keeping 
the  heads  level,  and  across  the  back  mark  with  a  soft 
pencil  guided  by  a  square,  lines  to  show  the  position  of 
the  slips.  The  positions  of  the  four  slips  should  leave 
the  space  between  the  slips  the  same  as  that  between  the 

1  Figs.  195  and  196  are  from  Mr.  Cockerell's  "Bookbinding 
and  the  Care  of  Books,"  in  this  Series. 
*  These  form  the  fly-leaves  (p.  in). 

340 


top  slip  and  the  head  of  the  book  ;  the 
space  between  the  bottom  slip  and  the  tail 
should  be  a  little  longer  than  the  spaces 
between  the  slips.  At  about  -^  inch 
from  either  end  make  an  additional  line 
across  the  back  for  the  "  kettle "  or 
catch  stitch.  These  lines  will  show 
as  dots  on  the  back  of  single  sections. 
Each  individual  section  should  now 
have  at  the  back  a  dot  at  either  end 
for  the  kettle  stitches,  and  four  pairs 
of  dots  |  inch  apart  to  show  the  position 
of  the  slips,  ten  dots  in  all. 

"  To  sew  the  book,  fold  the  vellum 
slips  about  i^  inch  from  one  end  and 
bend  to  a  right  angle.  Place  your  front 
end-paper  outside  downwards,  with  the 
back  even  with  the  edge  of  a  table  or 
board,  and  place  your  folded  slips  with 
their  shorter  ends  under  it.  Then  insert 
your  needle  from  the  outside,  at  the  head 
"  kettle  stitch "  mark,  into  the  centre 
of  the  section  and  bring  it  out  at  the 
Hrst  band  mark  ;  put  the  slip  in  position 
and  reinsert  your  needle  at  the  mark  on 
the  other  side  of  the  slip,  and  so  on  to 
the  end  of  the  section,  coming  out  at  the 
tail  kettle  stitch.  This  should  leave 
your  section  with  a  thread,1  passing 
alternately  along  the  centre  fold  inside 
and  across  the  slips  outside,  with  a 
loose  end  hanging  from  the  kettle  stitch 
mark  where  you  began,  and  a  thread 
with  the  needle  hanging  from  the  other 
kettle  stitch  mark  (fig.  193). 

1  Thread  should  be  unbleached.  Silk  of 
the  best  quality  is  better  than  thread. 


Krtrfe 
Stttfft 


Special 
Subjects 


'Toil 
iKrttlf 


Special  "  Lay  on  your  next  section  and  sew  it  in  the  same  way 

Subjects  but  in  the  reverse  direction,  tying  up  with  the  first  loose 
end  when  you  come  to  it.  Sew  the  whole  book  in  the 
same  way,  tying  on  a  new  needleful  of  thread  as  each  is 
exhausted,  making  practically  a  continuous  thread  going 
backwards  and  forwards  inside  the  sections  and  across  the 
slips  from  end  to  end  of  the  book.  Each  succeeding 
kettle  stitch  should  be  caught  up  by  a  loop  (fig.  194), 


FIG.  194. 


and  it  is  well  to  catch  together  the  loose  threads  crossing 
the  slips. 

"  When  the  book  is  sewn,  the  back  may  be  covered  with 
thin  glue  and  lined  with  a  piece  of  leather,  but  as  this  is 
a  little  difficult  to  manage  neatly,  and  as  the  book  will 
hold  together  without  it,  for  a  temporary  binding  the 
sections  may  be  left  without  glue. 

**  For  the  cover  cut  a  piece  of  covering  vellum  1  (vellum 
with  a  surface)  large  enough  to  cover  the  book  and  to 
leave  a  margin  of  i  J  inches  all  round.  Mark  this  with 
a  folder  on'  the  underside,  as  shown  at  A,  fig.  195. 
Spaces  (i)  and  (2)  are  the  size  of  the  sides  of  the  book 
with  the  surrounding  "  squares,"  2  space  (3)  is  the  width 
of  the  back,  and  space  (4)  the  width  for  the  overlaps  on 
the  foredge.8  Cut  the  corners  as  shown  at  (5),  and  fold 
the  edges  over  as  at  B,  and  then  fold  over  the  overlaps 

1  Forrel  may  be  used  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  vellum. 

2  "  Squares  "  =  "  the  portion  of  the  boards  projicting  beyond  the  edges 
of  the  book." 

*  "  Forcdgt  "=  "  (fore  edge)  the  front  edge  of  the  leaves," 

348 


\ 

5 

• 

3 

2 

V 

! 

A 

\ 

• 

\ 

• 

1 

3 

2 

B 

Special 
Subjects 


FIG.  195. 


and  back  as  at  C.     Be  sure  to  make  all  folds  sharp  and 
true. 

"  To  avoid  mistakes  it  is  well  to  make  a  cover  of  stiff 

349 


Special         paper  first,  and  then,  when  that  fits  exactly,  to  mark  up 

Subjects       the  vellum  from  it. 

"  On  the  inside  of  the  vellum  cover,  mark  faint  lines 
about  |  inch  from,  and  parallel  to,  the  creases  of  the  back, 
and  further  lines  about  J  inch  from  these.  Place  your 
book  in  the  cover  and  mark  the  places  where  the  slips 
cross  these  lines.  Make  slits  in  the  cover  there,  and  lace 
the  slips  through  them  (fig.  196),  first  putting  a  piece  of 


FIG.  196. 

loose,  toned  paper  inside  the  cover  to  prevent  any  marks 
on  the  book  from  showing  through  the  vellum.  Then 
lace  pieces  of  silk  ribbon  of  good  quality l  through  the 
cover  and  end-papers,  leaving  the  ends  long  enough 
to  tie." 


BROADSIDES,    WALL    INSCRIPTIONS,    &C. 

Set  Inscriptions. — Ordinary  inscriptions  generally 
consist  of  a  given  number  of  words  to  be  set  out  in 

1  A  good,  rather  dark  green  ribbon  looks  well — such  as  that 
known  as  "  Church  lace,"  used  for  the  "  tyers  "  in  some  of  the 
Kelmscott  books.  Very  good  ribbons  may  be  obtained  from  a 
bookbinder,  at  6d.  to  is.  6d.  a  yard. 

350 


a  given  space.     Careful   planning  may  sometimes       Special 
be     required    to    fit    in    the    words    suitably,   or       Subject* 
to  adapt  the  lettering  to  the  space.     But  setting- 
out    (p.    258)    becomes     much     simpler    after    a 
little  practice,  and  the  good  craftsman  avoids  over- 
planning. 

The  Place  of  the  Inscription. — The  actual  space 
for  a  wall  inscription  is  commonly  suggested  by  an 
architectural  feature — a  stone,  a  panel,  or  a  niche 
— of  the  wall ;  but  in  choosing  a  suitable  space  for 
a  given  inscription,  or  suitable  lettering  for  a  given 
space,  we  must  take  into  account — 

1.  The  office  of  the  inscription. 

2.  How  it  is  to  be  read — 

(a)  "  At  a  glance"  or 

(b)  by  close  inspection. 

3.  The  distance  from  the  reader. 

4.  The  lighting  of  the  space. 

5.  The  character  of  the  surroundings. 

6.  Any  special  features. 

The  Size  of  the  Letters. — The  all-important  ques- 
tion of  readableness  may  be  settled  thus  :  the  inscrip- 
tion having  been  planned  suitably  to  fill  the  space, 
one  or  two  words  are  written  or  painted  (the 
exact  size)  on  paper — smoked  or  otherwise  col- 
oured if  necessary  to  resemble  the  background. 
This  is  stuck  upon  the  chosen  part  of  the  wall, 
aud  then  viewed  from  the  ordinary  position  of  a 
reader.  When  the  inscription  is  high  up,  the  thin 
parts — especially  the  horizontals  of  the  letters — 
must  be  made  extra  thick  to  be  seen  properly  from 
below. 

Margins. — Wide  margins  are  only  required  for 
comparatively  small  lettering  which  demands  the  close 

351 


Special  attention  of  the  reader*  and  generally  a  set  inscrip- 
Subjects  tion  looks  best  if  the  lettering  be  comparatively 
large — covering  most  of  the  given  surface,  and 
leaving  comparatively  narrow  margins.  The  frame 
or  moulding,  or  the  natural  edge  or  environment 
of  the  circumscribed  space,  is  very  often  sufficient 
"margin"  (see  Plate  XXIV.). 

The  margins  vary,  however,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances ;  especially  the  foot  margin,  which 
may  be  very  narrow  if  all  the  space  is  required  for 
the  lettering  (see  fig.  211),  or  very  large2  if 
there  is  plenty  of  space  (see  fig.  210).  And, 
as  in  special  pages  or  terminal  pages  of  books, 
so  in  single  sheets,  panels,  &c.,  the  "  foot  margin  " 
may  show  —  as  it  really  is — as  the  space  which 
did  not  require  to  be  filled,  and  was  therefore 
"/eft  over." 

Number  of  Different  Types. — While  in  a  book  of 
many  pages  considerable  diversity  is  allowed,  it  is 
essential  to  the  strength  and  dignity  of  a  single 
sheet  or  set  inscription  to  limit  the  number  of 
types  employed  in  it.  Three  or  four  ordinary 
types  will  generally  give  sufficient  variety,  and  if 
it  be  necessary — as  in  notices  and  placards — that 
IMPORTANT  WORDS  be  put  in  special  types  to  catch 
the  eye,  let  two — or  at  most  three — special  types 
suffice,  and  let  the  remainder  of  the  text  be 
as  quiet  and  reserved  as  possible.  "Display 
Types"  commonly  defeat  their  object  by  being 
overdone.  A  simple  contrast  is  the  most  effective 


1  E.g.  all  ordinary  written  and  printed  matter  intended  to  be 
read  at  a  short  distance  (see  pp.  103-106). 

3  As  much  as  two-thirds,  or  more,  of  the  whole  (pace. 

352 


CAPITALS 

in  the  head-line,  large  and  spaced  wide,  are 
contrasted  with  a  mass  of  smaller  lettering 
below  (see  p.  330).  NOTE. — Generally  a 
finer — though  less  striking — effect  is  obtained 
by  keeping  large  capitals  rather  slender — con- 
trasting size  rather  than  'weight  (p.  328). 

FIG.  197. 


ILLUMINATED    ADDRESSES,   &C. 

Forms  of  Addresses,  &c. — The  writer  should  be 
prepared  to  advise  his  "  clients  "  on  the  form  which 
the  address  may  take,  on  special  features  in  its  writ- 
ing and  illuminating,  and  on  its  general  treatment. 

Ordinarily  an  Illuminated  Address  is  prepared 
either  as  a  Framed  Parchment  (p.  356),  a  Parchment 
Scroll,  or  sheet  (p.  356),  or  a  small  bound  MS.  (Le. 
in  book  form  :  p.  35  y).1 

The  wording  commonly  consists  of  three  parts  : 
the  HEADING  (usually  the  name  of  the  addressee), 
the  TEXT  (usually  divided  into  paragraphs),  the 
SIGNATURES  (or  a  list  of  names)  of  the  subscribers. 

An  address  is  commonly  in  the  ist  or  3rd  person, 
and  in  case  of  any  confusion  of  these,  any  slip  of 
the  pen,  or  other  oversight  in  the  draft,  the  penman 

1  The   addressee's  taste  and  convenience  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered :  e.g.  to  one  the  framed  inscription  might  be  an  embarrass- 
,  while  " 


Special 
Subjects 


ment,  while  by  another  it  might  be  preferred. 
Z 


353 


Special        should,  if  possible,  call  attention  to  it  before   the 
Subjects       document  is  put  into  permanent  form. 

A  very  convenient  and  agreeable  style  of  "ad- 
dress" is  a  formal  letter,  beginning  "Dear  Mr. 
A —  B — ,"  and  ending  in  the  ordinary  way.  This 
is  a  form  which  may  be  drawn  up  more  simply,  and 
which  reads  more  naturally,  than  the  ordinary  ist 
or  3rd  personal  statement. 

An  "  address "  is  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a 
resolution  passed  by  a  public  or  private  body  or 
committee.  For  municipal  or  other  important 
corporations,  such  an  extract  from  their  minutes, 
neatly  and  "  clerkly  "  written  out  on  parchment, 
and  duly  attested  by  the  signatures  of  their  "  head  " 
and  their  secretary,  and  without  ornament  save 
their  seal — on  a  dependent  ribbon — or  their  coat- 
of-arms,  or  badge,  would  not  only  be  the  most 
natural,  but  possibly  the  most  dignified  and  effective 
shape  which  might  be  given  to  the  formal  presenta- 
tion of  their  compliments. 

An  "address"  accompanying  a  present  is  fre- 
quently little  more  than  a  list  of  names  with  a  brief 
complimentary  or  explanatory  statement.  If  pos- 
sible such  an  inscription  should  be  written  or 
engraved  on  the  article  itself,  or  be  specially 
designed  to  accompany  it.  In  some  cases  this 
is  very  simple  :  when  a  volume,  or  set  of  volumes, 
is  given,  the  inscription  may  be  written  in  the  first 
volume — or  on  a  parchment  which  may  be  inserted 
— or  it  may  be  prepared  in  book  form,  in  a  binding 
to  match.  A  silver  or  other  ornament  sometimes 
has  a  little  drawer  provided  to  hold  a  narrow  scroll 
of  names.  A  portrait  may  have  an  inscription  on 
the  frame — or  even  in  a  corner  of  the  picture — or 
be  accompanied  by  a  simple,  framed  parchment. 

354 


Signatures. — A    neatly   written   out  list  of  sub-        Special 
scribers — especially  when  their  number  is  large —       Subjects 
is  very  convenient :   it  does  not  require  individual 
personal  appointments,  nor  involve  risks  of  damage 
to    the   address.      The   actual   signatures  of  sub- 
scribers, however,  are  of  greater  interest  and  sen- 
timental value,  and  on  such  grounds  are  preferable 
to  a  mere  list  of  names. 

To  avoid  risks  (or  with  a  view  to  incorporating 
the  signatures  in  the  decorative  scheme)  the  decora- 
tion, gilding,  &c.,  may  sometimes  be  deferred  until 
after  the  signing  of  the  address. 

When  the  exact  number  and  the  names  of  the 
subscribers  are  known  beforehand,  lines  may  be 
provided  for  their  signatures,  marked  with  letters 
in  alphabetical  order  (the  proper  number  of  lines 
under  each).  This  method  solves  any  difficulty  in 
regard  to  precedence  in  signing. 

NOTE. — Ordinary  signatures  require  about  -J  inch 
by  3  inches  space  each.  If  there  are  many  they 
may  be  conveniently  arranged  in  two  or  more 
columns,  according  to  the  space  available. 

Directions  for  Signing l — 

Edges  of  parchment  not  to  project  beyond  desk  or 

table,  lest  they  be  creased. 
Paper  to  be  provided  to  cover  the  address,  with 

FLAPS  to  raise  when  signing. 
When  lines  for  signatures  are  grooved  (p.  108), 

signatories  to  face  the  light  (this  makes  the  lines 

more  evident). 

Ink  of  one  colour  to  be  used  if  possible. 
Clean,  ORDINARY  pens  to  be  provided,  and  pieces 

of  paper  for  trying  them  on. 

1  To  be  given  to  the  person  in  charge  of  the  address. 

355 


Special  Framed  Parchments. — The  parchment  may  have 

Subjects  — beyond  the  top  and  foot  margins — spare  pieces 
which  (after  the  writing  and  illuminating  is  finished) 
are  bent  over  the  ends,  and  glued  to  the  back,  of  a 
stout,  white  card,  or  millboard — covered  with  white 
or  light  coloured  paper.  Or — extra  margin  being 
allowed  all  round — the  edges  of  the  parchment  are 
cut  into  tags  or  "scallops,"  and  folded  over  an 
ordinary  canvas  stretcher,  and  well  tacked  at  the 
back  with  small  brads.  The  wedges  are  carefully 
adjusted  till  the  parchment  lies  flat. 

A  parchment  glued  to  the  surface  of  a  millboard 
is  more  convenient  for  framing,  but  has  a  less 
natural  surface,  and  is  not  so  easily  managed  by 
the  penman  as  the  plain,  flexible  parchment. 

Frames  should  be  gold,  black,  or  white  ;  very 
plain,  and  generally  without  mounts.  The  parch- 
ment, however,  must  be  framed  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  any  part  of  it  coming  into  contact  with 
the  glass  (as  that,  being  damp,  would  lead  to  cockling). 

Parchment  Scroll. — The  foot  edge  of  the  parch- 
ment may  be  folded  over  twice,1  a  strong,  silk 
ribbon  (see  footnote,  p.  350)  is  laced  along  through 
slits  in  the  folded  part  (ay  fig.  198),  so  that  the  two 
ends  come  out  again  at  the  centre — where  they 
may  be  knotted  together — and  are  ready  to  tie 
round  the  scroll  when  it  is  rolled  up  (b}.  A  rather 
narrow,  "upright"  parchment  is  most  convenient 
(c).  An  "oblong"  parchment  may  be  very  effec- 
tively arranged  in  long  lines  of  writing  (^).  If  a 
special  casket  or  case  is  not  provided,  a  neat 

1  The  original  intention  of  this  fold,  in  deeds,  was  to  provide 
for  the  attachment  of  the  seal,  and,  perhaps,  to  prevent  any  addi- 
tion being  made.  If  the  folded  part  be  fairly  wide,  say,  £  to  i 
inch,  little  or  no  foot  margin  need  be  allowed. 

356 


Or  the  nhkon 
ma    be  laced 


Special 
Subjects 


(<*.)  micht  \x  rolled  up  fas  'indicated*)) 
*nd  fain  a  cylvu&al  cafe .  «1H 

FIG.  198. 

japanned  tin  case  may  be  obtained  for  a  few 
shillings. 

A  small  Bound  MS.  is  certainly  the  most  easily 
handled  form  in  which  an  address  may  be  prepared 
— its  convenience  to  the  penman,  the  signatories, 
the  reader,  and  the  addressee,  is  strongly  in  its 
favour.  A  lengthy  address,  or  a  very  large  number 
of  names,  may  be  contained  in  a  comparatively 
small  book. 

Method  of  Planning  out  Addresses,  &c. — If  in  the 

357 


Special  book  form ,  the  address  is  treated  much  as  an  ordinary 
Subjects  book  (see  Chap.  VI.,  and  Binding,  p.  346).  The 
framed  or  scroll  address  is  planned  similarly  to  a 
single  sheet  (p.  90).  The  following  notes  of  a 
working  method  were  made  during  the  planning 
out  of  an  address  : — 

(i)  Decide  approximately  the  general/bra,  shape,  and  decora- 
tive treatment  of  address. 


(2)  Count  words    in  TEXT  (leaving  out 

HEADING  and  SIGNATURES)  . 
Count  paragraphs  .... 
(Decide  whether  first  or  last  paragraph 

is  to  be  in  a  different  form  or  colour.) 
Decide  approximate  width 
Decide  approximate  side  margins  (i\ 

inches  each)    ..... 
Hence  length  of  ivriting-line    . 
Allow  ^  inch  lines,  and  approximately 

eight  words  to  the  line. 


(3) 


130  words  TEXT,  approx.      .  16  lines 
Allow  extra  (on  account  para- 
graphs)       .         .         .         .1  line 
(Roughly  sketch  out  HEAD- 
ING   on    lines  each  £  inch 
by    7    inches.)       Allow   for 
HEADING          .         .         .6  lines 

Allow  for  two  SIGNATURES, 

&c.     .         .         .         .         .3  lines 


=  13° 

-—  5 

=  12  inches. 

=       5      » 
=       7      tt 

=        8  in.  deep. 

=  I.  '„*'  „ 


Total  depth  of  Writing,  &t.         .  26  lines   =      13  inches. 
Allow  for  Top  margin    .         .          .  *       ,, 

Allow  for  Foot  margin  .         .          .  3       ,, 

(NoTE. — This  tvas  a  "  scroi/,"  and  the  foot 
margin  ivas  folded  up  to  "within  an  inch  of  the 
SIGNATURES.  A  plain  sheet  would  have 
required  about  4  inches  foot  margin.) 

Length  of  Parchment      .          .18  inches. 

(4)  Cut  a  paper  pattern,  12  inches  by  18  inches.  Rule  (in 
pencil)  Side  margins  (2^  inches  and  2^  inches),  and  Top 
margin  (2  inches),  and  26  (£  inch)  lines.  On  this  write 
out  the  address  in  ordinary  handwriting,  using  ordinary 

358 


black  and  red  (or  coloured)  inks  :  make  approximately  Special 
eight  words  to  the  line,  and  -write  as  fast  as  possible;  this  Subjects 
helps  to  keep  the  spacing  uniform. 

This  written  pattern  should  not  take  more  than  twenty 
minutes  for  its  entire  preparation :  it  is  intended  to  be 
used  as  a  check  on  the  previous  calculation  (not  as  an 
exact  p/an),  and  as  a  copy,  it  being  easier  to  copy  from 
your  own,  than  from  another's,  handwriting. 

If  the  original  draft  is  typewritten,  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  make  such  a  pattern. 

(5)  Check  this  copy  very  carefully  with  the  original  to  see  that 

the  words,  &c.,  are  correct. 

(6)  Cut,  rule,  and  pounce  the  parchment  (pp.  343,  174). 

(7)  On  some  scraps  of  parchment,  ruled  with  a  few  similar 

lines,  and  pounced,  try  one  or  two  lines  of  writing, 
both  in  vermilion  and  black,  to  see  that  all  goes 
well. 

This  enables  you  to  get  the  pens  and  inks  into  working 
order,  and  will  very  likely  save  the  carefully  prepared 
parchment  from  being  spoilt. 

(8)  Write  out  the  address,  leaving  suitable  gaps  for  gold  or 

special  letters. 

(9)  Put  in  special  letters,  decorative  capitals,  and  any  other 

decoration. 

(10)  Check  the  finished  address  very  carefully  with  the  original 
draft  (see  (5)  above)  and  look  it  over  for  mistakes, 
dotting  i's,  and  putting  in  commas,  &c.,  if  left  out.  It 
is  important  that  such  a  formal  document  should  be 
accurate. 

General  Remarks. — The  above  simple  mode  of 
planning  out  can  be  further  simplified  in  custom 
and  practice.  By  the  penman  keeping  to  regular 
shapes,  proportions,1  and  modes  of  treatment  for  regular 

1  E.g.  to  keep  to  ^  inch  writing-line  spaces  (except  for  extra 
small  addresses,  or  small  books).  This  being  approximately 
the  right  space  for  ordinary  SIGNATURES,  results  in  further 
simplification  of  ruling  and  arrangement. 

359 


Special        occasions,  the  addresses,  &c.,  will  practically  "  plan 
Subjects       themselves"  (p.  101),  and  better  workmanship  is 
the  natural  result. 

Generally  the  simpler  the  form  and  the  treatment 
of  an  Illuminated  Address,  the  better  the  effect. 
The  most  effective  decoration  is  the  plain  coloured 
or  gold  capital,  and  the  finest  ornament  is  a  coat- 
of-arms  (see  "  Heraldry"  below  ;  and  for  general, 


uwram 

/% 

ftiHiejr 
the  truT^i  Got  ofJrms 


360 


FIG.  199. 


simple  Illumination,  see  Chapters  VII.  to  XIII.).    A        Special 
symbolical  mark,  such  as  a  crest,  badge,  monogram,       Subjects 
cypher,  or  other  device  (p.  362),  boldly  and  decora- 
tively  treated,  may  be  used  in  place  of  a  coat-of-arms. 
There  is  too  much  "  Illumination  "  in  the  con- 
ventional "Address,"  which  looks  like  a  "  piece  of 
decoration  "  with  a  little  writing.     A  really  reason- 
able and  effective  Illuminated  Address  is  a  piece  of 
writing  suitably  decorated. 

Heraldry.  —  'A  reliable  handbook  must  be  con- 
sulted, for  accurate  "  blazoning  "  is  essential. 
Early  examples  should  be  studied  (see  p.  387). 
The  diagram,  fig.  199,  is  given  as  an  example  of 
how  a  charge  was  evenly  arranged  on  the  shield 
(see  balanced  background,  p.  419).  Another  example 
—  showing  a  diapered  chequer  —  is  given  on  p.  336. 

Shields  in  Illuminated  borders  may  be  coloured 
before  the  border,  lest  the  brilliant  mass  of  colour 
of  the  shield  clash  with  the  border.  The  shield,  if 
large,  may  with  advantage  set  the  tone  of  the  whole 
colour  scheme. 

MONOGRAMS   &    DEVICES 

A  Monogram  consists  of  two  or  more  letters 
combined  in  one  form,  as  the  diphthong  ^E,  and 

the  amperzand1  \*J  for  oT':  its  legibility  may 
be  helped  by  compound  colouring.  A  Cypher 
consists  of  linked  or  interlaced  letters,  as 


i  In   the  common  form  Ot,  the  letters  \^  C    (see  Plate 
VI.)  are  now  barely  traceable. 

36l 


Special        and  may  be  repeated  and   reversed  if  desired  (see 
Subjects       fig.  200). 


3C 

°° 


C. 

and.  reversed. 


ice  used  by  Charles  t/ie  (Jneaf: 
KAROLVS- 


iirur  this 
Sort  of  Cyrtiars, 
ietters  may  te  vm#en  cm  a 
piece  o-f  paper,  which  is  -foldad,$o 
that  tn£  tetter?  m>er& 
ty^tyhite  the  uU<  is  still 

FIG.  200. 

Monograms  and  cyphers  may  be  very  decora- 
tively  employed  as  ornaments,  and  may  be  used  to 
mark  a  man's  goods,  or  as  a  signature  on  his  work  : 
something  easily  recognised — either  very  legible  or 
characteristic — is  therefore  desirable.  The  two 
modes  may  be  combined,  and  there  is  no  limit  to 

362 


the  effective  devices  and  ornaments  which  may  be        Special 
composed  of  letters.      Simple  and  straightforward       Subjects 
devices,  however,  are  generally  preferable  to  very 
ornate  or  intricate  designs. 

Chronograms. — A  chronogram  consists  of  a  word 
or  words  in  which  the  numerical  letters  indicate  a 
date.  The  following  is  from  a  very  fine  memorial 
inscription  at  Rye  (see  fig.  207)  : — 

loannes   Threel^e  MfDlo  L«/«  setatls  fl^ore  obllt. 

It  expresses  the  date  I+L+M+D+I+L+I+L+I+I 

(or  1  +  50+1000+500+1  +  50+1  +  50+1+!)  =  1655. 
As  every  letter  having  a  numerical  value  (i.e.  C,  D, 
I,  (J),  L,  M,  (U),  V,  (W),  X)  may  be  counted,  a 
proper  chronogram  is  not  easily  composed. 

The  letter-craftsman  will  discover  many  ways 
of  "  playing  "  with  letters,  and  of  expressing — or 
concealing — names  and  numbers  in  other  words, 
and  he  may  take  every  liberty  he  chooses  in  his 
private  pleasure,  provided  it  does  not  clash  with 
public  convenience. 

TITLE  PAGES 

If  large  capitals  be  used,  the  Name  of  the  Book, 
the  Author,  &c,,  above  ;  the  Name  of  the  Publisher, 
the  Date,  <Sv.,  below,1  may  together  fill  the  page. 
Ordinary  capitals  (as  used  in  the  text)  leave  a  space 
in  the  centre  (see  Title  Page  of  this  book)  :  often 
pleasantly  filled  by  a  small  woodcut — a  symbolical 
device,  monogram,  or  printer's  mark. 

Generally,  the  fewer  and  simpler  the  types,  the 
better :  though  contrasts  of  size,  form,  or  colour 

1  Other  particulars  may  be  put  in  the  colophon  (p.  142). 

363 


Special  see  p.  327) — such  as  printing  one  or  two  words  in 
Subjects  large  CAPITALS,  or  in  HBlatfe  ILttttt  (p.  331), 
or  part  in  red — may  sometimes  be  used  with  good 
effect.  When  the  types  are  rather  varied,  single 
or  double  framing  lines  (called  "  rules ")  placed 
round  the  page  have  the  effect  of  binding  the 
whole  together.  The  page  may  also  be  divided 
into  parts  by  transverse  "rules" — these  further 
solidify  it.  Black  rules  are  preferable  to  red  (p. 
144)  :  if  they  are  double,  the  outer  line  may  be 
thicker  than  the  inner.1 

Relation  of  Title  Pages,  <SY.,  to  the  Text. — Gene- 
rally the  practical  part  of  the  book  is  to  be  con- 
sidered and  settled  before  the  ornamental  and  the 
decorated  Title  page  conforms  to  the  treatment  of 
the  text  pages,  and  should  be  clearly  related  to 
them  by  the  character  of  its  letters  or  its  orna- 
ments. Its  margins  (especially  the  top  margin) 
should  be  approximately  the  same  as  those  of  the 
text  pages,  though  framing  borders  may  occupy 
part  of,  or  nearly  all,  the  marginal  space.  Without 
doubt  the  artless,  ordinarily  printed  title  page  is 
preferable  to  those  specially  designed  "  title  pages  " 
that  have  little  or  no  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 
book. 

Wood  Engraving  (see  pp.  365,  371). — Of  all  the 
"  processes,"  wood  engraving  agrees  best  with 
printing.  The  splendid  effect  of  Title  and  Initial 
pages  engraved  in  wood  may  be  seen  in  the  books 
of  the  Kelmscott  Press.  In  early  printing,  wood- 
cut ornaments  or  borders  were  commonly  used  to 

1  The  use  of  "rules,"  though  quite  legitimate,  will  be  found 
misleading  if  it  be  depended  on  to  "doctor"  and  "pull  to- 
gether "  any  weak  arrangement  of  lettering. 

364 


decorate  the  printed  title  page.  An  example  of  Special 
this  combined  method — of  which  unfortunately  Subjects 
the  greater  part  of  the  borders  have  to  be  left  out 
— is  shown  in  fig.  201  (from  a  i6th  century  book).1 
Initial  Pages  and  Openings. — The  claim  of  these 
to  decorative  treatment  should  be  considered  (p. 
128).  We  generally  look  at  the  outside  of  a  book 
for  the  title — which  should  be  clearly  stamped  on 
the  cover.  But  inside  the  book  we  look  rather 
for  its  actual  beginning  than  for  its  name,  and, 
while  something  in  the  nature  of  the  "  sub-title  " 
might  be  used,  it  would  be  quite  reasonable  to 
revive  the  ancient  fashion — especially  in  the  case 
of  MS.  Books — of  making  the  actual  beginning 
the  most  decorative  part  of  the  book.  Or  a  very 
fine  effect  may  be  obtained  by  the  decoration  of 
the  entire  initial  opening — the  title  on  the  verso 
(left  page),  the  beginning  of  the  first  chapter  on 
the  recto  (right  page). 


LETTERING    FOR    REPRODUCTION 

Where  it  is  possible,  it  is  generally  best  to  make 
use  of  ordinary  typography.  A  good  fount  of  type 
and  a  natural  setting-up  or  arrangement  of  it,  are 
more  effective  than  many  special  designs  (see  pp. 
364,  267). 

Wood  and  Metal  Engraving. — If  special  forms  or 
arrangements  of  letters  are  required,  for  which  type 
is  lacking  or  unsuited,  they  are  best  cut  in  wood  or 

1  More,  Sir  Thomas  :  "  Utopia,  tt  Mori  et  Eratmi  Epigrammata  "  : 
410,  Froben,  Basle,  1518.  Woodcut  borders  and  Title  p'ages 
by  Holbein.  (The  reproduction  is  from  the  title  page  to  the 
Epigrams.)  NOTE. — The  exceptionally  fine  type  of  capitals  (see 
p.  373)  here  shown  is  used  throughout  the  book  for  headings,  &c. 

365 


Special 
Subjects 


EPIGRAM- 

M  ATA  CLA 

RISSIMI  DI 

SERTISSIMI- 

QVE  VIRI 

THOMAE 

MORI  BRI- 

TANNI,  PLERACLVE  E    GRAE 
CIS     VERSA.  i 


FIG.  201  (see  footnote,  p.  365) 


metal.     The  engraver  leaves  the  mark  of  his  tool        Special 
and   hand  upon,  and  so  gives  character  to,  such       Subjects 
lettering ;    while,   if  he   has   some    knowledge  of 
letters,  he  may  give  fresh  beauty  to  their  forms. 

The  Zincotype  Process  reproduces,  either  in  fac- 
simile or  on  a  reduced  scale,  the  "design"  made 
by  the  craftsman  in  "  black  and  white."  This  it 
does  more  or  less  exactly  according  to  the  pains 
taken  by  the  zincographer,  the  quality  of  the  paper 
employed,  &c.  The  literalness  and  facility  of  this 
process,  however,  seem  to  have  had  a  prejudicial 
effect  on  the  work  of  the  designer.  Unless  he  con- 
scientiously determines  that  his  design  shall  stand 
without  "  touching-up,"  the  knowledge  that  he 
may  blot  out  or  trim  a  faulty  line  with  white,  that 
he  may  fill  out  or  finish  a  deficient  stroke  with 
black,  that  he  may  work  large  and  zincograph  small, 
is  apt  to  result  in  carelessness  combined  with  over- 
finishing — or  a  sort  of  perfection  without  character. 

If  zincography  be  used,  a  strong,  rather  type- 
like  letter,  or  a  built-up  letter — arranged  to  give  a 
general  effect  of  richness  of  mass,  would  appear 
more  natural  than  the  doubtful  "  reproduction  "  of 
delicate  writing  or  fine  pen-lettering.1 

Etching. — Calligraphy  might  be  reproduced  with 
very  fine  effect,  retaining  its  natural  delicacy  and 
on  a  plane  surface,  if  a  process  of  etching  writing 
in  facsimile  were  possible. 

PRINTING 

The  general  question  of  fine  printing  and  its 
relation  to  calligraphy  can  only  be  briefly  referred 

1  Doubtful,  because,  unless  unusual  care  be  taken,  its  delicate 
quality  may  be  lost  in  the  process,  and  also  because  of  the 
type-like  impress  of  the  block  on  the  paper. 

367 


Special  to  here.  A  proper  study  of  the  art  of  typography 
Subjects  necessitates  practice  with  a  printing  press,  and  prob- 
ably the  help  of  a  trained  assistant. 

To  would-be  printers,  printers,  and  all  interested 
in  typography,  the  easily  acquired  art  of  writing 
may  be  commended  as  a  practical  introduction  to 
a  better  knowledge  of  letter  forms  and  their  decora- 
tive possibilities* 

In  this  connection  I  have  quoted  in  the  preface 
(p.  13)  some  remarks  on  Calligraphy  by  Mr. 
Cobden-Sanderson,  who,  again,  referring  to  typog- 
raphy, says — * 

"  The  passage  from  the  Written  Book  to  the  Printed 
Book  was  sudden  and  complete.  Nor  is  it  wonderful  that 
the  earliest  productions  of  the  printing  press  are  the  most 
beautiful,  and  that  the  history  of  its  subsequent  career  is 
but  the  history  of  its  decadence.  The  Printer  carried  on 
into  Type  the  tradition  of  the  Calligrapher  and  of  the 
Calligrapher  at  his  best.  As  this  tradition  died  out  in 
the  distance,  the  craft  of  the  Printer  declined.  It  is  the 
function  of  the  Calligrapher  to  revive  and  restore  the 
craft  of  the  Printer  to  its  original  purity  of  intention  and 
accomplishment.  The  Printer  must  at  the  same  time  be 
a  Calligrapher,  or  in  touch  with  him,  and  there  must  be 
in  association  with  the  Printing  Press  a  Scriptorium  where 
beautiful  writing  may  be  practised  and  the  art  of  letter- 
designing  kept  alive.  And  there  is  this  further  evidence 
of  the  dependence  of  printing  upon  writing  :  the  great 
revival  in  printing  which  is  taking  place  under  our  own 
eyes,  is  the  work  of  a  Printer  who  before  he  was  a  Printer 
was  a  Calligrapher  and  an  Illuminator,  WILLIAM 
MORRIS. 

"  The  whole  duty  of  Typography,  as  of  Calligraphy, 
is  to  communicate  to  the  imagination,  without  loss  by  the 

1   "  Ecce  Mundut  (The  Book  Beautiful),"  1902. 
368 


way,  the  thought  or  image  intended  to  be  communicated        Special 

by  the  Author.     And  the  whole  duty  of  beautiful  typog-        Subjects 

raphy  is  not  to  substitute  for  the  beauty  or  interest  of  the 

thing  thought  and  intended  to  be  conveyed  by  the  symbol, 

a  beauty  or  interest  of  its  own,  but,  on  the  one  hand,  to 

win  access  for  that  communication  by  the  clearness  and 

beauty   of  the  vehicle,  and  on  the  other  hand,  to  take 

advantage  of  every  pause  or  stage  in  that  communication 

to  interpose  some  characteristic  and  restful  beauty  in  its 

own  art." 

Early  Printing  was  in  some  points  inferior  in 
technical  excellence  to  the  best  modern  typography. 
But  the  best  early  printers  used  finer  founts  of 
type  and  better  proportions  in  the  arrangement 
and  spacing  of  their  printed  pages  ;  and  it  is  now 
generally  agreed  that  early  printed  books  are  the 
most  beautiful.  It  would  repay  a  modern  printer 
to  endeavour  to  find  out  the  real  grounds  for  this 
opinion,  the  underlying  principles  of  the  early  work, 
and,  where  possible,  to  put  them  into  practice. 

Freedom. — The  treatment  or  "  planning  "  of  early 
printing — and  generally  of  all  pieces  of  lettering 
which  are  most  pleasing — is  strongly  marked  by 
freedom.  This  freedom  of  former  times  is  fre- 
quently referred  to  now  as  "  spontaneity  " — some- 
times it  would  seem  to  be  implied  that  there  was 
a  lawless  irresponsibility  in  the  early  craftsman, 
incompatible  with  modern  conditions.  True  spon- 
taneity, however,  seems  to,  come  from  working  by 
rule^  but  not  being  bound  by  it. 

For  example,  the  old  Herbal  from  which  'figs. 
135  to  141  are  taken  contains  many  woodcuts  of 
plants,  &c.,  devoting  a  complete  page  to  each. 
When  a  long  explanation  of  a  cut  is  required, 
a  smaller  type  is  «W(comp.  figs.  135  &  138)  ;  when 
2  A  369 


Special        the  explanation  is  very  short,  */  does  not  fill  the  page. 

Subjects  This  is  a  free  and  natural  treatment  of  the  greatest 
convenience  to  the  reader,  for  illustration  and  text 
are  always  in  juxtaposition.  And  though  the  size 
of  the  type  and  the  amount  of  the  text  are  varied, 
yet  the  uniform  top  margins,  and  the  uniform 
treatment  and  arrangement  of  the  woodcuts,  har- 
monise the  pages,  and  give  to  the  whole  book  an 
agreeable  effect  of  freedom  combined  with  method. 
An  old  way  of  treating  a  text  and  its  commen- 
tary is  indicated  by  the  diagram  (fig.  202).  The 


sh&wuur  arrangement  of  J><ug&  (about  ^  fut  ). 
•  Inner  a>tumns  of  Commentary  narrow  (Text  cols,  equal) 


FIG.  202. 


text  is  printed  in  large  type,  the  commentary,  in 
smaller  type,  surrounds  it  ;  such  portion  of  the 
text  being  printed  on  each  page  as  will  allow  suffi- 
cient surrounding  space  for  the  accompanying  com- 
37° 


mentary  on  that   portion.     The    proportions   and        Special 
treatment     of     every     page    are     uniform    (note,       Subjects 
particularly,  the  uniformity  of  the  upper  parts  of 
the  pages,  five  lines  of  commentary  being  allowed 
to  enclose  the  text,  or  bound   it  above,  on   every 
page)  with   the  exception   that  the  height   of  the 
text-column    varies — one    page    having  as   few    as 
three  lines  of  text  to  the  column,  another  having 
fifty-nine  lines.     This  free  treatment  of  the  text 
gives  a  charming  variety  to  the  pages. 

Poetry. — A  broader  and  freer  treatment  is  desir- 
able in  the  printing  of  poetry.  The  original  lines 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  verses  should  be  more 
generally  preserved.  And  though  the  opening 
lines  of  a  poem  may  sometimes  be  magnified  by 
printing  them  in  capitals — which  necessitate  their 
division — to  sacrifice  the  naturally  varying  line  to 
the  "  even  page  "  is  questionable,  and  to  destroy 
the  form  of  a  poem  in  order  to  compress  it  is  a 
"  typographical  impertinence  "  (see  p.  95). 

DECORATION  OF  PRINT  * 
MUCH  MAY  BE  DONE  BY 
ARRANGING  IMPORTANT 
TEXT  IN  "ITS  OWN"  CAPITALS  ; 
OR  BY  THE  OCCASIONAL  USE 
OF    EXTRA    LARGE    CAPITALS. 

For  special  letters  or  ornaments,  woodcuts  are 
best  (see  p.  364).  The  early  printers  generally 
had  little,  simple  blocks  of  ornamental  devices 
which  might  be  used  separately,  or  be  built  up 
into  a  frame  border  for  a  whole  page — a  simple 
method  and  effective,  if  used  reasonably. 

371 


Special  The  judicious  use   of  colour,   especially  of   red 

Subjects  (see  pp.  127,  144),  is  very  effective.  The  extra 
printings  required  for  additional  colours  may  make 
it  worth  while  (in  the  case  of  limited  editions)  to 
put  in  simple  initials,  paragraph  marks,  notes,  &c., 
by  hand  (see  pp.  194,  113).  The  earliest  printed 
books,  being  modelled  on  the  MS.  books,  employed 
such  rubrication  freely,  in  spaces  specially  left  in  the 
text  or  in  the  margins.  There  are  still  great  possi- 
bilities in  the  hand  decoration  of  printed  books. 

The  following  note  on  printing,  reproduced  here 
by  the  permission  of  Mr.  Emery  Walker,  appeared 
in  the  Introductory  Notes  of  the  Catalogue  of  the 
first  exhibition  of  The  Arts  and  Crafts  Exhibition 
Society,  in  1888. 


"PRINTING 

"  Printing,  in  the  only  sense  with  which  we  are  at 
present  concerned,  differs  from  most  if  not  from  all  the 
arts  and  crafts  represented  in  the  Exhibition  in  being 
comparatively  modern.  For  although  the  Chinese  took 
impressions  from  wood  blocks  engraved  in  relief  for  cen- 
turies before  the  wood- cutters  of  the  Netherlands,  by  a 
similar  process,  produced  the  block  books,  which  were 
the  immediate  predecessors  of  the  true  printed  book,  the 
invention  of  movable  metal  letters  in  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century  may  justly  be  considered  as  the  inven- 
tion of  the  art  of  printing.  And  it  is  worth  mention  in 
passing  that,  as  an  example  of  fine  typography,  the  earliest 
dated [l]  book,  the  Gutenberg  Bible  of  1455,  has  never 

1  [//  ivas  dated  1456  by  a  rubricator,  not  by  the  Printer.  —  E.W.~\ 
372 


been  surpassed.  Printing,  then,  for  our  purpose,  may  be  Special 
considered  as  the  art  of  making  books  by  means  of  movable  Subjects 
types.  Now,  as  all  books  not  primarily  intended  as 
picture-books  consist  principally  of  types  composed  to 
form  letterpress,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  the  letter 
used  should  be  fine  in  form ;  especially,  as  no  more  time 
is  occupied,  or  cost  incurred,  in  casting,  setting,  or  print- 
ing beautiful  letters,  than  in  the  same  operations  with  ugly 
ones.  So  we  find  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth 
century  printers,  who  were  generally  their  own  type- 
founders, gave  great  attention  to  the  forms  of  their  types. 
The  designers  of  the  letters  used  in  the  earliest  books  were 
probably  the  scribes  whose  manuscripts  the  fifteenth-cen- 
tury printed  books  so  much  resemble.  Aldus  of  Venice 
employed  Francesco  Francia  of  Bologna,  goldsmith  and 
painter,  to  cut  the  punches  for  his  celebrated  italic  letter. 
Froben,  the  great  Basle  printer,  got  Holbein  to  design 
ornaments  for  his  press,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  painter  'may  have  drawn  the  models  for 
the  noble  Roman  types  we  find  in  Froben's  books.  With 
the  decadence  in  handwriting  which  became  marked  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  a  corresponding  change  took  place 
in  the  types;  the  designers,  no  longer  having  beautiful 
writing  as  a  model  and  reference,  introduced  variations 
arbitrarily.  The  types  of  the  Elzevirs  are  regular  and 
neat,  and  in  this  respect  modern,  but  they  altogether  lack 
the  spirit  and  originality  that  distinguish  the  early  Roman 
founts  of  Italy  and  Germany :  Gothic  characteristics 
inherited  from  their  mediaeval  predecessors.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  type-founding  began  to  be  carried 
on  as  a  craft  apart  from  that  of  the  printer,  and  although 
in  this  and  the  succeeding  century  many  attempts  were 
made  to  improve  the  "  face  "  (as  the  printing  surface  of 
type  is  called),  such  examples  as  a  rule  reflect  only  too 
clearly  the  growing  debasement  of  the  crafts  of  design. 
Notable  among  these  attempts  were  the  founts  cut  by 
William  Caslon,  who  started  in  business  in  London  as  a 
letter-founder  in  1720,  taking  for  his  models  the  Elzevir 

373 


Special  types.  From  this  time  until  the  end  of  the  century  he 
Subjects  and  his  successors  turned  out  many  founts  relatively 
admirable.  But  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
a  revolution  was  made,  and  the  founders  entirely 
abandoned  the  traditional  forms  of  their  pre- 
decessors, and  evolved  the  tasteless  letters  with 
which  nearly  all  the  books  published  during  the 
first  sixty  years  of  the  present  century  are  printed, 
and  which  are  still  almost  universally  used  for 
newspapers  and  for  Government  publications.  Par- 
ticularly objectionable  forms  are  in  everyday  use  in 
all  continental  countries  requiring  Roman  letter. 
(The  last  two  sentences  are  set  in  a  type  of  this  character. ) 

"In  1844  the  Chiswick  Press  printed  for  Messrs. 
Longmans  '  The  Diary  of  Lady  Willoughby,'  and  re- 
vived for  this  purpose  one  of  Caslon's  founts.  This  was 
an  important  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  its  success 
induced  Messrs.  Miller  &  Richard  of  Edinburgh  to  en- 
grave a  series  of  *  old  style  J  founts,  with  one  of  which 
this  catalogue  is  printed.  Most  other  type-founders  now 
cast  similar  type,  and  without  doubt  if  their  customers, 
the  printers,  demanded  it,  they  would  expend  some  of 
the  energy  and  talent  which  now  goes  in  cutting  Japanese- 
American  and  sham  seventeenth -century  monstrosities  in 
endeavouring  to  produce  once  more  the  restrained  and 
beautiful  forms  of  the  early  printers,  until  the  day  when 
the  current  handwriting  may  be  elegant  enough  to  be 
again  used  as  a  model  for  the  type-punch  engraver. 

"  Next  in  importance  to  the  type  are  the  ornaments, 
initial  letters,  and  other  decorations  which  can  be  printed 
along  with  it.  These,  it  is  obvious,  should  always  be 
designed  and  engraved  so  as  to  harmonise  with  the  printed 
page  regarded  as  a  whole.  Hence,  illustrations  drawn 
only  with  reference  to  purely  pictorial  effects  are  entirely 
out  of  place  in  a  book,  that  is,  if  we  desire  seriously  to 
make  it  beautiful. 

EMERY  WALKER." 

374 


INSCRIPTIONS   ON    METAL,    STONE,    WOOD,    &C.  Special 

Subjects 
As  the  material  naturally  modifies  the  shapes  of 

the  letters  cut  or  formed  on  its  surface,  and  as  the 
object  bearing  the  inscription  affects  their  arrange- 
ment, it  is  essential  that  the  inscription  cutter  make 
himself  familiar  with  various  stones,  metals,  woods, 
&c.,  with  the  various  chisels  and  gravers  which  are 
properly  employed  on  them,  and  with  fine  inscrip- 
tions or  examples  of  good  pieces  of  lettering  (see 
pp.  388,  237). 

A  knowledge  of  penmanship  will  be  found 
useful,  and  the  pen  may  be  appealed  to  to  decide 
questions  of  abstract  form  in  regard  to  letters 
which  have  come  from  pen  forms  (e.g.  Roman 
Small-Letters,  Italics,  &c.).  And  in  this  connec- 
tion it  may  be  noted  again  that  the  "  slanted-pen 
forms"  (pp.  305,  43)  are  generally  the  most 
practical. 

Engraving  on  Metal. — Letters  incised  in  metal 
may  most  nearly  approach  pen  forms,  as  the  fine 
grain  of  the  metal  and  the  comparatively  small 
scale  of  the  work  allow  of  fine  "  thin  strokes." 
The  engraver,  however,  while  following  generally 
the  "thicks"  and  "thins"  of  the  penman,  allows 
the  metal  and  the  tool  and,  to  a  large  extent,  his 
own  hand,  to  decide  and  characterise  the  precise 
forms  and  their  proportions. 

Inscriptions  in  Stone  (see  Chap.  XVII.,  Plates 
I.,  II.,  and  XXIV.,  and  pp.  292,  36). — The  grain 
of  stone  does  not  generally  allow  of  very  fine  thin 
strokes,  and  the  "  thicks  "  and  "  thins  "  therefore 
tend  to  differ  much  less  than  in  pen-work.  Their 
origin,  moreover,  is  much  less  easily  traced  to  the 
tool — i.e.  the  chisel — and  the  difference  was  less  in  the 

375 


Special  early  inscriptions  (see  Plate  II.)  than  we  are  now 
Subjects  accustomed  to  (see  Plate  XXIV.)  :  perhaps  it  may 
be  explained  as  a  fashion  set  by  penmanship  (see 
p.  241). 

Inscriptions  on  Wood  are  frequently  in  relief  (see 
raised  letters,  p.  377),  matching  the  carved  orna- 
ment. Incised  letters  may  be  painted  or  gilded  to 
make  them  show  more  clearly. 

Sign-Meriting  and  Brush-Work. — Inscriptions,  such 
as  shop  signs,  notices,  &c.,  painted  on  wood  or 
stone,  require — besides  a  practical  knowledge  of 
materials — a  considerable  facility  with  the  brush 
or  "  pencil."  Directness  and  freedom  of  work- 
manship are  most  desirable.1 

A  suitable  brush  will  make  letters  closely  re- 
sembling pen  letters.  But  the  pen  automatically 
makes  letters  with  a  uniform  precision,  which  it 
is  neither  desirable  nor  possible  for  the  brush  to 
imitate :  and  greater  skill  is  required  to  control 
the  brush,  which  in  the  hand  of  a  good  "  Writer  " 
will  be  permitted  to  give  its  own  distinct 
character  to  the  lettering  (see  also  p.  292,  and 
fig.  164). 

The  brush  is  properly  used  for  temporary  in- 
scriptions, especially  on  the  surface  of  painted  wood 
or  stone,  but,  for  more  important  work,  incising  or 
carving  (painted  if  desired)  are  to  be  preferred  as 


1  This  is  recognised  in  the  Sign-writing  profession,  where, 
I  understand,  an  applicant  for  work  is  sometimes  given  a  black- 
board or  a  piece  of  American  cloth,  on  which  he  writes  out  a 
short  inscription  in  "  sharp  white."  It  is  not  necessary  to 
watch  the  writer ;  good,  direct  workmanship  shows  itself,  and 
also  every  hesitating  stroke  or  fault,  every  patch  or  <(  touching- 
up  "  or  "  going  over,"  is  made  evident. 

376 


being  more  permanent l  and  preserving  the  original        Special 
form  2  of  the  lettering.  Subjects 

OF    INSCRIPTIONS    GENERALLY 

(See  a  ho  Chapter  XIV.  and  pp.  350-353) 

Alphabets. — For  practical  purposes  the  best  letters 
are  the  Roman  Capitals^  Roman  Small-Lettersy  and 
Italics.  These  are  susceptible  of  very  decorative 
treatment  without  loss  of  legibility.  And  there 
are  many  varieties  of  the  pure  Roman  Capital 
(see  figs.  203  -  207),  besides  the  "  Gothicised  " 
Roman  and  the  simple  "  Gothic  "  Capitals,  which 
are  all  essentially  readable. 

Different  Sizes  of  Capitals  in  inscriptions  in  wood, 
stone,  metal,  &c.,  are  generally  kept  approximately 
equal  in  "  weight  "  (see  p.  328).  NOTE. — A  down- 
ward decrease  in  height  of  the  letters  is  common 
in  early  inscriptions  (p.  410). 

Incising  is  generally  the  most  simple,  and  there- 
fore the  most  natural,  method  for  making  an 
ordinary  inscription.  The  letters  should  be  large 
rather  than  small,  and  be  deeply  cut.  Note,  how- 
ever, an  incised  stamp  or  die  produces  an  impression 
in  relief  on  clay,  &c.  This  may  be  seen  in  the 
lettering  on  Roman  pottery. 

Raised  Letters. — From  the  earliest  times  letters 
in  relief  (or  litter  a;  prominentes]  have  been  used  for 
special  purposes.  They  are  generally  rather  more 
legible  than  the  incised  letters,  and  the  difference 
between  "  thicks  "  and  "  thins  "  tends  to  disappear. 

1  Brush  lettering  may  be  used  very  effectively  on  Tiles  and 
China,  &c.    (see   p.   339),   when  it  is  of  course  rendered  per- 
manent by  baking. 

2  The  original  form  of  a   painted   inscription  (not  carved) 
is  inevitably  spoilt  by  re-painting. 

377 


t^l 

o 


3 

«^ 

p4 


*-i 

e=s 


u 

a 

o 

Q 


VM 

ei-4 
v^ 
^ 


t=-j 

i 
^ 

o 

o 

Vn-4 

45 

^5 

^ 

O 

2 
o 


1 


»     LX-'^  ~"  < 

^  p^  U^    g 

S5^:| 


{— . 

S 

^ 

>Xi 


•§, 

I 
? 

u 

& 


379 


38° 


382 


o 


w 


383 


Special  It  is  quite  possible  to  make  a  beautiful  and  char- 
Subjects  acteristic  alphabet  of  equal-stroke  letters,  on  the 
lines  of  the  so-called  "  Block  Letter  "  but  properly 
proportioned  and  finished  (such  letters  may  be 
Raised^  or  Incised  or  Painted :  see  incised  form,  p.  391). 

Raised  letters,  if  exposed  to  wear  or  damage,  may 
be  protected  by  being  on  a  sunk  panel  or  having  a 
raised  frame  or  ornament.  The  background  also 
may  be  left  in  raised  strips  flush  with  the  letters, 
between  the  lines  of  the  inscription. 

Punctuation. — In  early  inscriptions  the  words 
were  separated  by  points ;  in  the  more  ancient 

they  are  square  shaped  H,  I  >  •••>  ni  the 
more  elaborate,  triangular  ^  J^  4,  some- 
times with  curved-in  sides  W  (Plate  I.).  These 
developed  later  into  the  ivy  leaf  £V  Vx  or 

"  hederce  distinguentes."  Such  points  may  be  used 
occasionally  in  modern  work  with  fine  effect,  but 
should  seldom  be  used  between  every  word,  unless 
the  words  are  necessarily  so  close  that  distinguishing 
marks  are  required. 

Phrasing  and  Arrangement. — An  inscription  may 
be  arranged  in  sentences  or  phrases,  and  occasionally, 
by  the  use  of  larger  letters,  greater  prominence  is 
given  to  a  word  or  phrase  (see  figs.  197,  204,  21 1). 
This  method  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  nature 
of  a  set  inscription  (p.  264),  and  may  help  both  its 
readableness  and  its  appearance,  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  to  lay  stress  on  any  one  state- 
ment or  word  may  pervert  its  meaning  or  attract 
too  much  attention  to  it. 

Any  confusion  of  sense,  or  accidental  word 
(p.  259)  or  phrase,  appearing  in  the  setting-out  is 

384  ' 


avoided,  if  possible,  by  a  slight   rearrangement  of       Special 
the  part,  or,  if  necessary,  of  the  whole  inscription.       Subjects 
Great  care  is  taken  that  the  spelling  is  accurate :  a 
pocket  dictionary  should  be  carried. 

Reading  is  further  facilitated  by  avoiding,  where 
possible,  the  dividing  of  words  at  the  ends  of  lines. 
It  may  be  observed  that  in  the  more  ancient  in- 
scriptions words  were  generally  kept  entire. 

Exercises  in  letter  form  and  arrangement,  more 
profitable  than  mere  paper  "  designing,"  might  be 
devised  by  the  craftsman.  Inscriptions  might  be 
cut — on  a  small  scale — in  gesso  or  chalk,  or  in- 
scriptions might  be  variously  spaced  and  arranged 
on  a  properly  coloured  surface — such  as  a  drawing- 
board  covered  with  light  or  dark  cloth — in  letters 
cut  out  of  sheet-lead  or  card. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY,    &C. 

The  few  books  and  pamphlets  given  below  are 
generally,  of  recent  date,  practical,  and  inexpensive. 
The  prices  quoted  are,  I  believe,  those  at  which 
the  books  are  generally  sold  (not  necessarily  their 
published  prices).  They  are  all  illustrated,  except 
Nos.  *9,  10,  n,  and  19. 

WRITING,  &c.     (See  also  Nos.  8,  12,  14,  19, 
28,  29,  and  31.) 

1.  The  Story  of  the  Alphabet  :  Edward  Clodd, 

1900.     9d. 

2.  Greek    and    Latin    Palaeography  :     Edward 

Maunde  Thompson.  35.  9d.  (The  ex- 
tracts in  these  pp.  36,  41,  416,  &c.,  are 
from  the  2nd  edition,  1894.) 

3.  The  Journal  of  the   Society  of  Arts,  No. 

2726,  Feb.    17,    1905  ;  Papers  on    Calli- 
2B  385 


Special  graphy  and  Illumination  :  Edward  Johnston 

Subjects  and  Graily  Hewitt.     6d. 

4.  Fac-similes  de  Manuscrits  Grecs,  Latins  et 

Francais  du  Ve  au  XIVe  Siecle  exposes 
dans  la  Galerie  Mazarine  :  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  Departement  des  Manuscrits.  5s. 

5.  "  A  Guide  to  the  Manuscripts"  in  the  British 

Museum,  1906  (30  plates).     6d. 

6.  Bible  Illustrations:   Oxford   University  Press^ 

1896.     About  2s. 

ILLUMINATION,  &c.     (See  also  Nos.  3,  4,  5, 
12,  14,  29,  and  31.) 

7.  Illuminated  Letters  and  Borders  :  John  W. 

Bradley,  1901  (19  plates).  (Price  at  South 
Kensington  Museum)  is.  8d. 

8.  English    Illuminated   Manuscripts :    Sir   E. 

M.  Thompson,  1895.  (Now  out  of  print.) 
*().  The  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  No. 
2368,  April  8,  1898  ;  a  Paper  on  English 
Art  in  Illuminated  Manuscripts :  Sir  E. 
M.  Thompson.  6d. 

*io.  The  Book  of  the  Art  of  Cennino  Cennini 
(a  contemporary  practical  treatise  on  14th- 
century  Italian  painting)  :  Translated  by 
Christiana  J.  Herringham,  1899.  6s. 

*n.  Some  Hints  on  Pattern  Designing:  (lecture, 
1881),  William  Morris,  1899.  2s.  6d. 

(11^7.  "Books  for  the  Bairns. — No.  50,"  contains 
55  reproductions  of  Bewick"1*  Birds,     id.) 
BOOKS  — MANUSCRIPT    &    PRINTING. 
(See  also  Nos.  2  to  9,  and  29  and  31.) 

12.  Books  in  Manuscript:  Falconer  Madan,  1893. 

6s.    (  Frontispiece  draivnfrom  this  by  permission. ) 

13.  The    Story   of  Books:    Gertrude    Burford 

Rawlings,  1901.     gd. 


14-  The  Old  Service  -  Books  of  the  English  Special 
Church  :  Christopher  Wordsworth  and  Subjects 
Henry  Littlehales,  1904.  75.  6d. 

15.  Early  Illustrated  Books:  Alfred  W.  Pollard, 

1893.     6s. 

1 6.  Facsimiles   [in   colour]   from   Early  Printed 

Books  in  the  British  Museum,  1 897.   75. 6d. 

17.  A   Guide  to  the  Exhibition  in  the  King's 

Library  (illustrating  the  History  of  Print- 
ing, Music  Printing,  and  Bookbinding)  : 
British  Museum,  1901  (36  illustrations).  6d. 

1 8.  "Arts   and    Crafts  Essays   by  Members  of 

the  Arts  and  Crafts  Exhibition  Society" 
— Printing :  William  Morris  and  Emery 
Walker — (ist  pub.  1893),  l%99-     2S-  od- 
*I9-  "Ecce  Mundus,"  containing  The  Book  Beauti- 
ful :  T.  J.  Cobden-Sanderson,  1 902.   2s.  6d. 

20.  Printing  (a  technological  handbook) :  Charles 

Thomas  Jacobi,  1898.     35.  9d. 

21.  Bookbinding  and   the   Care  of  Books  (The 

Artistic  Crafts  Series  of  Technical  Hand- 
books}^ 1901  :  Douglas  Cockerell.  55. 

22.  A  Note  on  Bookbinding  :  Douglas  Cockerell, 

1904.     id. 

HERALDRY,    SYMBOLISM,   6v.      (See   also 
Nos.  i,  12,  15,  29,  and  31.) 

23.  The  Journal  of  the   Society  of  Arts,   No. 

2309,  Feb.  19,  1897  ;  A  Paper  on  The 
Artistic  Treatment  of  Heraldry  :  by  W. 
H.  St.  John  Hope.  6d. 

24.  English   Heraldry:   Charles   Boutell,   1867. 

6th  ed.  1899,  about  35.  9d. 

25.  The  Stall  Plates  of  the  Knights  of  the  Garter, 

1348-1485  :    W.     H.    St.    John     Ho 
(90  coloured  plates,  Imp.  8vo).    About 

387 


Special  26.  Didron's     Christian     Iconography    (or    the 

Subjects  History  of  Christian  Art  in  the  Middle 

Ages) :  2  vols.     35.  gd.  (each). 
LETTERING,  &c.     (See  also  Nos.  i  to  8,  and  12 

to  20.) 

27.  Lettering    in    Ornament  :    Lewis  F.   Day, 

1902.     5s. 

28.  Alphabets :  Edward  F.  Strange  (ist  ed.  1895). 

4th  ed.,  35.  9d. 

29.  The  Pa  Ideographical  Society's  Publications  (out 

of  print),  containing  hundreds  of  fac- 
similes (chiefly  of  MSS.),  are  of  great 
interest.  They  may  of  course  be  seen 
in  the  British  Museum  Library.  The 
New  Pa  Ideographical  Society  publishes  a 
selection  of  facsimiles  annually. 

30.  Hiibner's    Exempla    Scripturae    Epigraphicae 

Latinae  a  Caesaris  dictators  morte  ad 
aetatem  Justiniani  (Berlin,  1885,  price  465.) 
contains  many  fine  outline  drawings  of 
ancient  Roman  inscriptions  (see  figs. 
203-5).  It  is  kept  with  the  books  of 
reference  in  the  Reading  Room  at  the 
British  Museum. 

31.  Photographs  of  fine  pieces  of  lettering  may 

be  obtained   at  the  Book  Stall  in  South 

Kensington  Museum  (see  footnote,  p.  409). 

Original  MSS.  or  Inscriptions — from  which  we 

can  learn  much  more  than   from   photographs  or 

drawings — may    be    found    in    most    parts   of  the 

country,  and  in  London  especially  in  the  British 

Museum,  South  Kensington  Museum  (see  p.  391), 

the  Record    Office  (Rolls   Chapel,  see  p.   n),  and 

Westminster  Abbey  (MSS.  in  the  Chapter-House). 

388 


APPENDIX  B 


CHAPTER   XVII 

INSCRIPTIONS    IN    STONE 

(By  A.  E.  R.  Gill) 

Treatment  &  Arrangement — The  Three  Alphabets — 
Size  &  Spacing — The  Material — Setting  Out — 
Tools  — A  Right  Use  of  the  Chisel  —  Incised 
Letters  &  Letters  in  Relief — The  Sections  of 
Letters — Working  in  situ. 

TREATMENT   &    ARRANGEMENT 

Treatment. — Inscriptions    are    carved   in    stone    for     Inscriptions 
many  uses  :  for  Foundation  Stones  and  Public  In-       in  Stone 
scriptions,  for  Tombstones  and  Memorial  Inscrip- 
tions, for  Mottos  and  Texts,  for  Names  and  Advertise- 
ments, and  each  subject  suggests  its  own  treatment. 

Names  and  Advertisements  should  be  easily  read, 
and  usually  entirely  unornamental.  The  Treat- 
ment of  Texts,  Memorial  Inscriptions,  Foundation 
Stones,  &c.,  may,  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
case  or  the  opportunities  of  the  carver,  be  either 
simple  or  elaborate. 

Colour  and  Gold  may  be  used  both  for  the  beauty 
of  them  and,  in  places  where  there  is  little  light,  to 
increase  legibility. 

Arrangement. — There  are  two  methods  of  arrang- 
ing Inscriptions:  the  "Massed"  and  the  " Sym- 

389 


Inscriptions  metrical"  In  the  former  the  lines  are  very  close 
in  Stone  together,  and  approximately  equal  in  length,  and 
form  a  mass.  Absolute  equality  is  quite  unneces- 
sary. Where  the  lines  are  very  long  it  is  easy  to 
make  them  equal  ;  but  with  lines  of  few  words 
it  is  very  difficult,  besides  being  derogatory  to  the 
appearance  of  the  Inscription.  In  the  "  Symmetri- 
cal" Inscription  the  length  of  the  lines  may  vary 
considerably,  and  each  line  (often  comprising  a 
distinct  phrase  or  statement)  is  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  Inscription  space. 

Short  Inscriptions, such  as  those  usually  on  Tomb- 
stones or  Foundation  Stones,  may  well  be  arranged 
in  the  "Symmetrical"  way,  but  long  Inscriptions 
are  better  arranged  in  the  "Massed"  way,  though, 
sometimes,  the  two  methods  may  be  combined  in 
the  same  Inscription. 

THE    THREE    ALPHABETS 

The  Roman  Alphabet,  the  alphabet  chiefly  in  use 
to-day,  reached  its  highest  development  in  Inscrip- 
tions incised  in  stone  (see  Plate  I.),  and  it  became 
absolutely  suited  to  the  material. 

Besides  ROMAN  CAPITALS,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  letter-cutter  should  know  how  to  carve 
Roman  small-letters l  (or  "  Lower  case  ")  and  Italics, 
either  of  which  may  be  more  suitable  than  Capitals 
for  some  Inscriptions. 

Where  great  magnificence  combined  with  great 
legibility2  is  required,  use  large  Roman  Capitals, 

1  With  which  we  may  include  Arabic  numerals. 

2  It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  legibility  by  no  means 
excludes  either  beauty  or  ornament.    The  ugly  form  of  "  Block  " 
letter  so  much  in  use  is  no  more  legible  than  the  beautiful  Roman 
lettering  on  the  Trajan  Column  (see  Plates  I.,  II.). 

390 


Incised  or  in  Relief,  with  plenty  of  space  between     Inscriptions 
the  letters  and  the  lines.  in  Stone 

Where  great  legibility  but  less  magnificence  is 
required,  use  "  Roman  Small-Letters  "  or  "  Italics," 
or  Roman  Capitals,  either  small,  or  close  together, 
or  both. 

All  three  Alphabets  may  be  used  together,  as,  for 
instance,  on  a  Tombstone,  one  might  carve  the 
Name  in  Capitals  and  the  rest  of  the  Inscription  in 
Small-Letters,  using  Italics  for  difference. 

Beauty  of  Form  may  safely  be  left  to  a  right  use 
of  the  chisel,  combined  with  a  well-advised  study 
of  the  best  examples  of  Inscriptions  :  such  as  that 
on  the  Trajan  Column  (see  Plates  I.,  II.)  and 
other  Roman  Inscriptions  in  the  South  Kensington 
and  British  Museums,  for  Roman  CAPITALS  ; 
and  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  tombstones, 
for  Roman  small-letters  and  Italics.1  If  the  simple 


A  with 


FIG.  209. 


1  Roman  small-letters  and  Italics,  being  originally  pen 
letters,  are  still  better  understood  if  the  carver  knows  how  to 
use  a  pen,  or,  at  least,  has  studied  good  examples  of  manuscripts 
in  which  those  letters  are  used. 

391 


Inscriptions  elementary  form  of  the  letter  be  cut  firmly  and 
in  Stone  directly,  it  will  be  found  that  the  chisel  will  suggest 
how  that  form  may  be  made  beautiful.  This  may 
be  shown,  for  example,  by  an  attempt  to  carve  a 
quite  simple  Incised  letter  with  no  Serifs  and  with 
all  the  strokes  equally  thick.  In  making  the  ends 
of  the  strokes  nice  and  clean  it  will  be  found  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  spread  them  into  Serifs,  and 
the  letter  is  at  once,  in  some  sort,  beautified  (see 
fig.  209). 

SIZE    &    SPACING 

Drawing  out. — Take  paper  and  pencil,  or  what 
you  will,  and  write  out  the  words  of  the  Inscription 
in  Capitals,  or  small-letters  (or  both),  without  any 
regard  to  scale  or  the  shape  of  the  space  the  Inscrip- 
tion is  to  go  in.  The  carver  will  then  see  easily 
of  what  letters  and  words  his  Inscription  is  com- 
posed. Next  draw  the  shape  of  the  Inscription 
space  (say  to  i  inch  or  ij  inch  scale),  and  in  that 
space  set  out  the  Inscription,  either  "Massed"  or 
" Symmetrical"  as  has  been  decided.  The  drawing 
should  be  neither  scribbled  nor  elaborated.  A 
good  plan  is  to  cut  the  lead  of  the  pencil  to  a 
chisel  shape.  The  natural  thicks  and  thins  of  the 
letters  (see  p.  44)  may  then  be  produced  easily 
and  quickly.  The  carver  will  thus  be  able,  after 
a  little  experience,  to  calculate  quite  easily  what 
size  he  will  be  able  to  carve  his  letters,  what  space 
he  will  be  able  to  leave  between  the  lines,  and 
what  margins  he  can  afford.1 

1  Some  advice  from  the  letter-cutter  might  be  useful  to  the 
client  as  to  the  number  of  "words  and  the  space  they  -will  occupy  in 
cases  where  it  is  possible  to  adapt  the  one  to  the  other. 

392 


The  Size  of  Lettering  depends  on  where  it  is  to 
go  (i.e.  outdoors  or  indoors,  far  away  or  near),  the 
material  to  be  used,  and  the  space  at  the  carver's 
disposal. 

Out  of  Doors  letters  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  less 
than  i  J  inch  high,  more  if  possible.1 

Indoors  smaller  lettering  may  be  carved,  but  even 
then  i  inch  is  quite  small  enough,  and  that  only 
in  marble,  slate,  or  the  finest  stones. 

In  such  stones  as  Ancaster  or  Ham-Hill  it  is  not 
possible  to  carve  good  letters  less  than  3  inches  high. 

More  than  one  size  of  letter  may  be  used  in  the 
same  Inscription  to  give  emphasis  to  certain  words, 
thus  :  on  a  Foundation  Stone  the  Date  (see  fig.  210), 


THISSTONE  WAS  LAID 

ON  THE 4-th OF  JULY 


Inscriptions 
in  Stone 


FIG.  210. 


1  Small  lettering  is  less  convenient  to  read  out  of  doors,  and 
is  apt  to  get  filled  with  dirt  or  moss. 

393 


Inscriptions    and  on  a  Tombstone  the  Name  (see  fig.  211),  may 
in  Stone       be  made  larger  than  the  rest. 


To  the  dor  memor  of 


aughter  of  John  & 
dSeth  Smith  of~^ 
this  porish.Shedied 
August  i4*  ipoi,  Agedid 


FIG.  211. 

Spacing. — Proper  spacing  is  essential  to  a  good 
Inscription.  As  a  general  rule,  Roman  letters 
should  not  be  crowded  together.  Space  should 
be  left  between  each,  varying  according  to  the 
letters — a  narrower  space  between  two  O's,  for 
example,  and,  generally,  a  wider  space  between  two 
straight  letters.  The  lines  may  be  about  the  height 
of  the  lettering  apart  (see  Plate  I.)  or  pretty  close 
together  (see  Plate  XXIV.). 

Margins. — If  the  Inscription  is  to  be  carved  in  a 
panel,  the  surrounding  mouldings  take  the  place  of 
margins,  and  the  lettering  may  fill  the  panel  (see 
fig.  21 1).  If  any  space  be  left,  let  it  come,  as  it 

394 


naturally  will,  at  the  bottom.  If  the  lettering  is 
not  to  be  in  a  panel,  the  margins  depend  primarily 
on  what  the  carver  can  afford,  and  where  the  In- 
scription is  to  go.  Every  case  must  be  treated  on 
its  own  merits,  but  as  a  general  rule  one  may  say 
that  the  bottom  margin  should  be  the  widest  and 
the  top  margin  the  narrowest. 


Inscriptions 
in  Stone 


THE    MATERIAL 

The  best  quality  a  stone  can  have,  from  a  letter- 
cutter's  point  of  view,  is  fineness  or  closeness  of 
texture,  combined  with  freedom  from  holes  and 
flints  or  occasional  shells,  and  the  letter  -  cutter 
will  do  well  to  choose  the  stone  himself,  if  possible, 
having  regard  to  this  quality. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  a  few  of  the  best  stones 
for  outdoor  and  indoor  use  : — 


Outdoors  or  Indoors. 

Portland. — Especially  good  for 
lettering  on  account  of  its 
fineness  and  its  excellent 
weathering  qualities,  for  it 
not  only  hardens  on  the 
surface,  but  also  becomes 
quite  white  if  exposed  to 
windand  rain,  thus  showing 
very  clearly  any  differences 
of  light  and  shade. 

Fine  and  hard  : 
good  weather- 
Hoptonwood       ing    qualities. 
Slate  Great  delicacy 

may  be  attain- 
ed in  these. 

g='}^."""' 


Indoors  only. 

(  Very  fine   and   deli- 

\  cate  work  ma7  be 
/  done  in  these. 

Bath. — A  cheap  stone,  and 
easily  carved  ;  but  unsuit- 
able for  small  lettering. 

Marbles  and  Alabasters. — Ex- 
cellent for  Inscriptions  in- 
doors, but  much  colour  or 
veining  tends  to  confuse 
lettering. 


395 


Inscriptions  SETTING  OUT 

in  Stone  r^,,  ,    .  ,      r        , 

1  he  stone  being  ready  for  the  setting  out,  i.e. 

smoothed  and  cleaned,  lines  are  ruled  on  it  for  the 
lines  of  lettering  and  margins  with  a  pencil  or  point. 
If  the  Inscription  is  to  be  arranged  "  Symmetrically" 
a  centre  line  is  ruled  from  top  to  bottom. 

The  carver  should  rule  and  set  out  one  line  and 
carve  that  before  ruling  another,  as  pencil  marks  are 
liable  to  be  rubbed  off  by  the  hand  in  carving.1 

In  "Setting  Out"  the  spacing  of  the  letters 
is  thought  of  rather  than  their  forms.  And  though 
the  beginner  may  find  careful  drawing  helpful,  the 
forms  which  may  best  be  produced  with  the  chisel 
are  found  only  by  practice  and  experience  (p.  399). 

TOOLS 

The  chisels  needed  for  simple  work  are  flat  chisels 
of  the  following  sizes  :— 

TY  inch,  J  inch,  f  inch,  \  inch,  i  inch. 

The  shanks  should  be  about  7  inches  long. 

It  will  he  found  useful  to  keep  a  few  "  Bull- 
nosed"  chisels  (see  7,  fig.  212)  for  use  in  cutting 
curves,  and  a  few  "skewed"  chisels  (8,  fig.  212)  for 
use  in  cutting  the  background  of  Raised  letters,  as 
a  chisel  of  that  shape  is  more  easily  used  in  a 
corner. 

The  chisels  are  either  Hammer-headed  or 
Mallet-headed^  or  they  may  have  wooden  handles 

1  Whenever  it  is  possible  the  carver  should  not  be  bound 
to  follow  a  drawing  strictly,  but  should  do  his  work  in  the 
straightforward  manner  described  above.  Unfortunately  he 
is  often  obliged  to  set  out  the  whole  Inscription  exactly  before 
carving  it,  and  in  such  a  case  it  is  usual  to  carve  the  bottom 
line  of  letters  first  and  to  work  upwards,  cutting  the  first  line 
last. 

396 


(see  fig.  212,  and  pp.  401-2).    The  Hammer-headed     Inscriptions 
are  the  most  used,  and  a  good  number  should  be        in  Stone 


t 

2,  Section  of  No.  I 

3  Straight 
Hammer-  headed 

4  Enlarged  section 


5  SecoMi  of  Hammer- 
head enlarged  to 


7  Bull-nosed' 
8*  Skewed' 

FIG.  212. 

procured.  The  best  are  made  with  cupped  ends,  to 
prevent  them  from  slipping  on  the  hammer  (see  5, 
fig.  212). 

397 


Inscriptions         Temper   and   Sharpness. — Above    all    things    the 
in  Stone      chisels   must  be  of  the  right  temper,  and  sharp.1 


Dunrmy 


Hammer 

FIG.  213. 

They  may  be  tempered  by  a  smith  or  tool-maker — 
if  the  craftsman  can  do  it  for  himself,  so  much  the 

1  Really  sharp,  i.e.   sharp   enough  to   cut  a  piece   of  paper 
without  tearing  it. 

398 


better.     They  are  sharpened  on  a  piece  of  Grit-stone    Inscriptions 
(hard  York  stone,  for  instance)  with  water.     The       in  Stone 
Temper  of  a  chisel  may  be  seen  by  the  colour  (blue 
shows  a  soft  or  low-temper,  straw  colour  a  hard  or 
high  temper),  and  felt  by  the  way  it  rubs  on  the  Grit- 
stone (a  hard  tool  will  slide  easily  over  the  stone, 
while  a  soft  one  will  seem  to  stick  or  cling).1 

Mallets. — A  wooden  mallet  or  Me  II,  a  Zinc 
mallet  or  Dummy,  and  an  iron  or  steel  hammer  are 
required  (fig.  213). 

The  Mell  is  made  wholly  of  wood,  and  should, 
for  letter  cutting,  be  about  5j  inches  in  diameter. 

The  Dummy  has  a  head  of  zinc  and  a  wooden 
handle.  It  should  be  about  2-J  inches  in  diameter. 

The  hammer  should  be  about  the  same  size  and 
weight  as  the  Dummy. 

A    RIGHT    USE    OF    THE    CHISEL 

The  workman  must  find  out,  for  himself,  how 
best  to  use  his  tools.  In  the  ordinary  way,  it  is 
best  to  hold  the  chisel  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  with 
the  surface  of  the  stone — in  the  manner  shown  in 
fig.  214 — in  cutting  both  straight  stems  and  curves. 
The  chisel  is  held  firmly  (usually  in  the  left  hand, 
with  the  little  finger  about  an  inch  from  the  cutting 
end  of  the  chisel)  and  tapped  rather  than  banged, 
and  lightly  rather  than  heavily. 

The  best  way  to  cut  a  letter  is  to  start  at  the 
extreme  left-hand  point  of  the  bottom  Serif,  and, 
working  upwards,  to  cut  the  left  side  of  the  stroke 
first.  Then  start  similarly  at  the  extreme  right- 
hand  point  of  the  bottom  Serif,  and  cut  the  right 
side  of  the  stroke.  Then  finish  the  Serifs. 

1  The  harder  the  stone  to  be  carved,  the  more  highly  tempered 
will  the  chisels  need  to  be. 

399 


Inscriptions        When  cutting  a  curve,  cut  the  inside  first  (fig. 
in  Stone 


FIG.  214. 

214),  and  start  as  near  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
curve  as  possible. 

In  Incised  letters  unnecessary  junctions  of  the 
parts  may  be  avoided  (see  fig.  215).  Where  they 
are  necessary,  as  in  a  capital  E,  or  in  a  small  y,  cut 

400 


away  from  the  junction  or  down  on  to  it,  rather    Inscriptions 
than  towards  it.  in  Stone 


Ncte  points  A 
showing  h<nv 
jonctums  may  be 
avoided,  in  stme 


FIG.  215. 

The  Mallet-headed  and  wooden-handled  chisels 
are  used  with  the  Mell  for  large  work  and  for 
cutting  surfaces. 

2  C  401 


Inscriptions 
in  Stone 


The  Hammer-headed  chisels  are  used  with  the 
hammer  for  ordinary  work,  and  with  the  Dummy 
for  small  and  delicate  work. 

A  Mallet  or  Dummy  is  not  used  in  carving 
chalk,  but  the  chisel  is  pushed  ;  the  right  hand 
doing  the  pushing,  and  the  left  hand  guiding  and 
steadying  the  chisel  (see  fig.  216).  If  the  chisel 


402 


FIG.  216. 


were  struck,  the  surface  of  the  chalk  would  flake     Inscriptions 
off.  in  Stone 

In  cutting  an  Incised  Inscription  with  the  ordi- 
nary "V"  section  (see  fig.  217),  use  one  size  of 
chisel  throughout.  The  width  of  the  chisel  should 
generally  be  about  the  width  of  the  letter  stem 
required.  More  elaborate  sections  necessitate  the 
use  of  several  sizes  of  chisels. 


INCISED    LETTERS   &    LETTERS    IN    RELIEF 

Inscriptions  may  be  Incised  or  in  Relief,  that  is, 
sunk  or  raised.1  The  modus  operandi  and  the  time 
spent  in  carving  the  actual  letters  are  the  same  in 
either  case,  but  whereas  when  the  Incised  letter  is 
carved  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  done,  after  the 
carving  of  the  Raised  letter  there  is  still  the  stone 
surrounding  it  (i.e.  the  background)  to  be  dealt 
with,  and  this  may  simply  be  carved  smooth,2  or, 
if  our  imagination  be  strong  enough,  and  our  hand 
have  the  cunning,  it  may  become  under  the  tool 
a  field  of  roses  and  lilies  in  which  the  letters  are  set. 

Other  things  being  equal,  it  becomes  a  question 
of  economy  which  form  of  lettering  one  will  carve, 
as  the  necessity  of  dealing  with  the  background  of 
a  Raised  Inscription,  while  more  than  doubling  the 
opportunities  of  the  carver,  at  least  doubles  the  time 
spent  in  carving. 

Raised  lettering  will  show  out  more  clearly  than 
Incised  lettering  where  there  is  little  light. 

1  In  learning  to  cut  Inscriptions  one  would  naturally  begin 
with  Incised  letters. 

2  Where  the  ground  between  the  letters  is  left  plain,  an  absolute 
flatness  and  evenness  is  not  necessary.     The  common  method 
of  jabbing  or  "pecking"  the  background  is  objectionable. 

403 


Inscriptions        Roman  Capitals  are  more  adapted  for  carving  in 
in  Stone      Relief  than  are  Roman  small-letters  or  Italics,  which 
are  directly  derived  from  the  pen. 

Raised  lettering  is  more  allied  to  ordinary 
carving,  while  Incised  lettering  may  be  thought 
of  as  writing  in  stone. 


I     ferorduury 


work* 


1404 


For  large  vwrft 


THE   SECTIONS   OF   LETTERS 

For  Inched  letters,  a  "  V  "  section  ( I ,  fig.  217)  of 
about  60°  is  best  for  regular  use  ;  deeper  rather  than 
shallower.  The  letters  may  with 
advantage  be  cut  a  little  deeper 
towards  the  Serifs  (see  fig.  218). 

Although  the  simple  "  V  "  sec- 
tion is  the  most  useful,  other 
sections  may  be  used  for  large 
letters  (i.e.  letters  more  than  6 
inches  high),  or  letters  in  a  very 
fine  material  (2  &  3,  fig.  217). 

If  the  lettering  is  to  be  gilded, 
and  the  stone  will  permit  of  it, 
Section  4  (fig.  217)  is  a  good  one  to  use. 
the  curved  part  is  to  be 
bevelled  sides. 


Inscriptions 
in  Stone 


FIG.  218. 

Only 
rilded,  and  not  the  small 


For  Raised  letters^  the  best  and  most  useful  section 
is  No.  5  ;  the  slightly  bevelled  sides  tell  as  part 
of  the  letter.  Experience,  and  the  weathering 
conditions,  will  suggest  the  amount  of  Relief  to  be 
given.  For  letters  i^-  inch  high,  out  of  doors,  T\ 
inch  of  relief  is  ample,  and  if  there  be  good  light 
J  inch  is  enough.  Excessive  relief  looks  clumsy. 

Sections  Nos.  6  and  7  are  suitable  only  for  large 
letters ;  and  elaborate  sections  should  as  a  rule  be 
used  only  for  letters  standing  alone. 


WORKING    IN  SITU 

If  possible  the  carver  should  work  in  situ. 
When  that  is  impracticable,1  he  should  consider 
most  carefully  where  his  Inscription  is  to  go. 

1  E.g.  Tombstones  and  Memorial  Slabs  are  not  usually  fixed 
until  finished. 

405 


Inscriptions         In  an  Inscription  which  is  much  above  the  eye 

in  Stone       level,  the   letters   may  be   narrower   in  proportion 

to  their  height,  and  the   horizontal  strokes   extra 

thick  to  allow  for  foreshortening.     (See  also    pp. 

351,270.) 

The  advantages  of  working  in  situ  are  great, 
for  by  so  doing  the  carver  sees  his  job  as  he 
works  under  the  same  conditions  of  light  and 
environment  that  it  will  finally  be  seen  under,  and 
the  work  is  more  likely  to  become  a  part  of  the 
place  because  it  has  grown  there. 

And  it  is  good  to  carve  an  Inscription  on  the 
actual  wall  of  a  fine  building,  and  better  still  to 
work  in  the  inspiriting  atmosphere  of  building  in 
progress,  or  to  work  in  the  open  air  where  the 
artificial  notions  of  workshop  or  studio  are  dissi- 
pated and  the  feeling  of  life  and  freedom  gained. 


406 


NOTES   ON   THE 
COLLOTYPE   PLATES 


NOTES  ON  THE  COLLOTYPE  PLATES  Notes  on  the 

(NOTE. — In  order  to  make  the  illustrations  ["whether  of  facsimiles  or  pi 

enlargements^  as  large  and  as  full  as  possible,  I  have  sacrificed  "  appear- 
ance "  to  use  and  alloived  most  of  the  collotype  plates,  and  many  of  the 
diagrams  in  the  book,  to  encroach  en  the  margins. — E,  J.) 

GENERAL  NOTE.— All  the  plates  are  in  facsimile  as 
to  size  (or  nearly  so,  allowing  for  errors  in  reproduction) 
except  I.,  II.,  XXIL,  and  XXIV.,  which  had  to  be 
reduced,  and  therefore  only  portions  of  the  MSS.  can  be 
shown.  NOTE.— All  the  MSS.  are  on  "Vellum"  (see 
p.  173).  In  order  to  get  a  better  impression  of  the  size 
and  general  proportion  of  a  MS.,  the  student  might 
reconstruct  it — or  at  least  mark  off  the  margins,  text, 
&c. — on  paper,  from  the  measurements  given.  Or  a 
sheet  of  paper  might  be  cut  to  the  size  of  the  given  page 
or  opening,  with  an  aperture  (in  its  proper  place)  through 
which  the  plate  might  be  viewed. 

The  plates  are  arranged  in  chronological  order  as 
nearly  as  possible.  They  are  intended  briefly  to  illus- 
trate the  Development  of  the  Formal  Book  Hands  from  the 
Roman  Capital  and  the  General  Development  of  the  Illumi- 
nated MS. :  I  hope,  moreover,  that,  fragmentary  as  they 
are,  they  will  prove  usefully  suggestive  in  regard  to  the 
Arrangement  of  Text  and  Lettering  and  Ornament.  The 
wonderful  effect  of  the  colouring  cannot  be  given  here, 
but,  in  any  case,  the  illuminator  should  look  at  some 
original  MSS.  Several  of  the  MSS.  from  which  the 
plates  are  taken  are  exhibited  in  the  British  Museum. 

PLATE   I. — Portion   of  Inscription   on   base   of  Trajan 
Column^  Rome,  circa  114  A.D.     Scale  approx.  ^th  linear. 

THE  STONE  (within  the  internal  line  of  the 
moulding)  :  3  feet  9  inches  high,  and  9  feet  f  inch  long. 

1  There  is  a  cast  (No.  1864-128)  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  South  Kensington,  where  also  the  photograph  of  the 
inscription  is  obtainable,  from  portions  of  which  Plates  I.  and 
II.  are  reproduced. 

409 


Notes  on  the        THE   BORDERS — The  lettering  practically  fills 
Collotype      the  panel    (see  p.   352)  :    the  surrounding   moulding  is 
Plates         approx.  4  inches  wide. 

THE   LETTERS    (for  their  forms  see  next  note), 

^^       •   f First  two  lines:     4^  inches  high. 
Approxi-    0          , 
rr  oecond  two  lines : 

mate     -{  ^.c ,    ,. 

Fifth  line : 


heights 
THE  S 


Last  line : 

•'ACES   (between  Lines)  decrease  from  3 


inches  to  2f  inches.  A  decrease  in  the  height  of  the 
letters  from  the  top  to  the  foot  line  is  common  in  early 
inscriptions  (see  figs.  203—205).  Several  reasons  for 
this  suggest  themselves  :  (<z)  (Sometimes  the  beginning 
words,  being  farther  from  the  reader,  may  require  to  be 
larger).  (£)  The  architectural  beauty  of  a  large  head- 
ing (comp.  stem  heads,  p.  288).  (c)  The  importance  of 
beginnings  generally  (there  is  very  often  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  the  upper  lines  containing  important  words 
and  the  rest  of  the  inscription  :  comp.  figs.  197,  91). 

NOTE. — The   WORDS   are  separated  by  triangular 
points  (p.  384). 


PLATE  II. — Alphabet  from  Trajan  Inscription.     (Circa 
114  A.D.)     Scale  approx.  fyh  linear.     (See  note  above.) 

THE  "TRAJAN"  ALPHABET.— Very  fine 
letters  for  inscriptions  in  stone :  possibly  painted  before 
incision  (see  p.  292) ;  see  also  remarks  on  Roman 
Capitals,  pp.  268-296,  and  note  : — 

SERIFS.— Small  and  carefully  curved. 

THIN  PARTS  about  half  the  width  of  the  thick 
stems  (pp.  375,  285). 

A  (M  and  N),  pointed  (p.  280). 

B — a  very  beautiful  form,  with  large  lower  bow  (p.  278). 
C,  G,  and  (D) — Upper  parts  rather  straight  (p.  281). 
E  and  F — mid  arm  slightly  shorter  than  upper  arm. 
E  and  L — loiver  serif  pointed  out  (p.  282). 
4IO 


Plates 


LO   (shown  sideways   in  collotype)  and  LT  show  L's  arm    Notes  on  the 
projecting  under  next  letter.  Collotype 

M — pointed:  slightly  spread  (p.  284),  distance  apart  of  points 
above  equal  to  inside  distance  of  stems  below. 

N — pointed:  practically  no  difference  in  thickness  of  vertical 
and  oblique  parts  (p.  285). 

O — very    beautiful :    -width   slightly   less    than    height    (p.   270) ; 
slightly  tilted  (as  are  all  the  other  curved  letters :   see  p.  285). 

P — Boiv  not  joined  to  stem  below  (first  P  rounder  topped). 

Q — tail  carried  under  y  (U). 

R — large  boiv :  straight  tail,  with  finishing-curve  (p.  291). 

S — leans  forward  slightly  (p.  286). 


Proportions 
of  -widths 
to  heights 
(comp. 
with  pp. 
269-273) 


OCDGMNQ  width  slightly  less  than  height. 

ARTV  width  approx.  £th  less  than  height. 

BX  width  rather  more  than  half  height. 

P  width  approx.  equal  half  height. 

LS  width  slightly  less  than  half  height. 

EF  width  approx.  ^ths  of  height. 


H,  (J),  K,  (U),  W,  Y,  Z  are  not  present  in  the 
inscription.  A  rough  diagram  (fig.  219)  is  giren  below 
showing  approximately  suitable  forms  for  these  (Re 
junction  of  U  in  stone  ;  see  p.  400,  &  fig.  215). 


FIG.  219. 


411 


Notes  on  the    PLATE  HL— Written  Roman  Capitals,  Fourth  or  Fifth 
Collotype  Century.      (VirgiF s  "  JEneid"}. 

(From  a  facsimile  in  the  Palasographical  Society's 
Publications,  ist  Series,  Vol.  II.,  PI.  208,  of  a  MS. 
in  the  library  of  S.  Gall,  Switzerland.  See  also  "  Greek 
and  Latin  Palaeography,"  p.  185.) 

LETTERS. — Simple- written  (slanted-pen)  Roman 
"  Square  Capitals." 

WORDS  in  early  MSS.  were  not  separated  (p.  112). 

LINES  ruled  with  a  hard  point  (p.  343).  The 
letters  appear  .to  have  been  written  between  every  alter- 
nate pair  (p.  299),  but  slightly  over  the  line. 

A  very  handsome  writing  which  might  still  be  used 
for  special  MSS.  (see  pp.  304,  300,  299). 


PLATE  IV. — Uncial  Writing,  probably  Italian  Sixth  or 
Seventh  Century.  (Latin  Gospels).  Brit.  Museum, 
Harl  MS.  1775. 

(Shown  in  Brit.  Mus.  Department  of  MSS.,  Case  G, 
No.  n.) 

THE  VOLUME  contains  468  leaves  (7  inches  by 
4|  inches). 

MARGINS,  Approx.  :  Inner  |-  inch,  Head  |  inch, 
Side  ~  inch,  Foot  ~  inch.  (They  may  have  been  cut 
down  by  the  binder.) 

WRITING.— A  fine  round- Uncial  MS.  (pp.  38, 
302),  arranged  in  long  and  short  lines. 

NOTE. — On  many  of  the  letters  there  are  fine  hair-line 
curved  tails  and  flourishes,  which  are  scarcely  visible  in 
the  photograph.  (These  tails  were  also  used  in  the 
earlier  Uncial  shown  in  fig.  5 — see  also  Addenda,  p.  23.) 

SECTIONS.— Marked  bybuilt-up  lettersof  an  Uncial 
type, and  numbered,  mR  cxxiiii  to  mR  cxxvi  (with  references 
to  " Harmonies").  The  passage  is  S.  Mark  xi.  21-25. 

412 


PLATE  V.— 


1TE  V. — Uncial  Writing,  probably  Continental  Seventh  Notes  on  tt 
Century.  (Gospel  of  S.  John).  Ex  libris  Stony  hurst  Collotype 
College.  (See  also  enlargement,  Jig.  169.) 


the 


Plates 


(From  a  facsimile  in  the  Palasographical  Society's 
Publications,  ist  Series,  Vol.  II.,  PL  17.) 

THE  VOLUME  contains  90  leaves,  approx.  5f 
inches  by  3J-  inches.  The  Inner  margin  is  approxi- 
mately ^  inch  wide. 

WRITING.— A  very  beautiful  pointed  (slanted-pen) 
Uncial.  The  "  pointed  "  character  of  the  letters,  which 
yet  retain  their  typical  roundness,  give  this  writing  a 
peculiar  charm.  Note  the  top  of  the  P  has  a  marked 
angle,  and  the  M  and  H,  and  even  the  O,  have  this 
slightly  or  strongly. 

RULING. — Single  lines,  rather  wide  (p.  305). 

ARRANGEMENT.— Certain  of  the  lines  are  in- 
dented one  letter  (p.  264). 

LARGE  LETTERS.— On  verso  COL  marking  a 
"  Chapter  "  is  built-up  in  red,  on  recto  the  three  large 
letters  (marking  sections)  are  simply  written  with  the  text 
pen  (p.  299).  (The  passage  is  S.  John  xi.  46-56.) 

PLATE  VI.— Half-Uncial  (Irish),  Seventh  Century. 
"  Book  of  Kells  "  (Latin  Gospels).  Ex  libris  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 

(From  a  facsimile — part  of  PI.  XLVII. — in  «  Celtic 
Ornaments  from  the  Book  of  Kells,"  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
T.  K.  Abbott.) 

THE  LEAVES — which  are  cut  down  and  much 
damaged — measure  13  inches  by  10  inches. 

WRITING.— A  beautifuland  highly  finished  (approx. 
straight  pen)  Half-Uncial  (pp.  40,  304),  tending  to  orna- 
mental and  fanciful  forms  whenever  opportunity  offered. 
(Note  the  treatment  of  ixde.) 

ARRANGEMENT.— Long  and  short  lines:  wide 
spacing. 


Notes  on  the        THE    LETTERS    combine    extreme    gracefulness 

Collotype      with  an  unusual  appearance  of  strength.     This  is  mainly 

Plates          due  to  the  ends  of  all  the  strokes  being  finished ;   the 

thick   strokes  have  large,  triangular  heads  (p.   327)  on 

the  left,   and   bases   broadened  by  an   additional   stroke 

below  on  the  right  (thus  9ft ).     And  the  horizontal  thin 

strokes  are  either  finished  with  a  triangular  terminal   (p. 

246),  or  run  on  into  the  next  letter — -joining  the  letters 

together. 

The  extreme  roundness  of  the  letters  is  contributed  to 
by  their  being  written  between  DOUBLE  LINES  (pp. 
304,  88),  the  upper  line  of  which  tends  to  flatten  the  tops. 

The  pen  not  being  quite  "  straight "  (see  footnote, 
p.  304),  together  with  a  tendency  to  pull  the  left 
hand  curves,  gives  a  characteristic  shape  to  the  letters 

a.c,b,e,q,i:. 

THE  ILLUMINATION  throughout  the  book  is 
most  elaborate  and  beautiful.  Each  division  has  an 
entire  Initial  page  occupied  with  the  first  few  letters. 
The  COLOURS  were  "paled  green,  red,  violet,  and 
yellow,  intense  black,  and  white,  but  no  gold"  :  see  de- 
scription of  Celtic  MSS.,  p.  40,  Bradley's  "  Illumi- 
nated Letters  and  Borders,"  and  also  the  Palaeographical 
Society's  ist  Series,  Vol.  II.,  PL  55-58,  88,  89. 

This  notable  book  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the 
marvellous  possibilities  of  pen- work  and  complex  colour- 
work  (see  p.  216). 

In  considering  the  value  of  the  writing  as  a  model, 
it  may  be  noted  that  its  highly  finished  nature  demands 
practised  skill  on  the  part  of  the  copyist,  and  that  though 
modern  Irish  writing  (for  which  it  would  be  an  excellent 

model)  still  employs  A ,  b  ,  'p  ,  J*.  ^  ,  |*  ,  "C  ,    these 
letters  would  be  apt  to  look  peculiar  in  English.    The  Kells 

MS.  a,  c,e.1),Tr),t),o,  i>,q,|V,  S  ,  u, 

however,  might  be  used,  and  a  very  beautiful  ornamental 
hand  (p.  304)  might  be  founded  on  this  writing. 
414 


PLATE  VII. —Half -Uncial  (English),  circa  700   A.D.    Notes  on  the 
"Durham    Book"    (Latin    Gospels).       Brit.    Mus.,       Collotype 
Cotton  MSS.  Nero  D.  IV.  Plates 

THE  VOLUME  contains  258  leaves  (13^  inches 
by  9|  inches). 

THE  WRITING  is  an  English— or  rather  Anglo- 
Irish — Half-Uncial,  written  at  Lindisfarne  (Holy  I.) 
under  Irish  influence  (p.  40).  ARRANGEMENT 
— two  columns  of  24  lines — long  and  short — to  the  page 
(note  how  eis  is  got  into  the  fifth  line)  :  wide  spacing. 

The  writing  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
"  Book  of  Kells,"  but  is  generally  much  plainer ;  it  is 
also  less  graceful,  being  heavier  and  'wider  in  proportion. 
The  «  Book  of  Kells  "  O  is  a  circle,  while  the  «  Durham 
Book  "  O  is  considerably  wider  than  its  height,  and  all  the 
other  letters  are  correspondingly  wide.  The  RULING 
in  both  books  consists  of  double  lines,  ruled  with  a  hard 
point  on  both  sides  of  each  leaf. 

THE  ILLUMINATION  also  resembles  that  of 
the  "  Book  of  Kells  "  (see  opposite),  but  a  small  amount 
of  gold  is  employed  in  it.  (See  also  Palaeographical 
Society's  1st  Series,  Vol.  II.,  PI.  3-6,  22.) 

NOTE. — The  "  Gloss,"  or  interlinear  translation,  is  in 
the  Northumbrian  dialect,  and  was  put  in  in  the  tenth 
century,  more  than  200  years  after  the  book  was  written. 

A  hand  founded  to  some  extent  on  the  "Durham 
Book  "  hand  is  given  in  Chap.  IV.  as  an  easy  copy :  see 
figs.  49,  50. 

PLATE  VI II.— English  Tenth-century  Writing.  (Psalter). 
Brit.  Mus.,  HarL  MS.  2904.      (See  enlargement,  Jig. 
172).    (Shown  B.  M.  Grenville  Lib.  Case  2,  No.  9.) 
THE  VOLUME  contains  214  leaves  (13^  inches  by 
10  inches),  18  lines  to  the  page;    probably  written   at 
Winchester  in  late  tenth  century.    (PI.  reduced  scale  ^ths.) 
WRITING.— An  extremely  good,  formal,  "  slanted- 
pen  "  writing,  having  great  freedom  (note  the  very  slight 

415 


Notes  on  the   slope  forward)  and  simplicity.     This  type  of  letter  may 
Collotype      be  regarded  as  a  link  between  the  Half-Uncial  and  the 
Plates          Roman  Small-Letter  (see  p.  310). 

THE  RULING:  single  lines  (see  footnote,  p.  305). 

THE  LETTERS  show  very  strongly  the  effects  of 
the  "slanted  pen"  (see  pp.  43,  305).  Note  the  heavy 
shoulders  and  feet  in  n,  b,  &c.,  and  the  thick  horizontals 
in  r*C-  The  curved  tops  or  arches  are  flatfish  and 
strong  :  the  thick  strokes  end  in  points  and  are  hooked 
below,  thin  strokes  scarcely  appear  except  as  the  finishing 
strokes  of  a,  C,  6,1,  "C ,  while  d,  (h),  i,  m,  n,  U  end  in 
small  heavy  hooks.  Note  generally  the  tendency  to  internal 
angles  and  external  roundness  (examples,  f  and  o)« 

Note  particularly  the  junctions  and  accidental  crossings  of 
the  strokes  (seen  best  in  the  enlargement,  fig.  172)  as  bear- 
ing on  the  mode  of  construction  of  the  letters  (see  p.  84). 

Note  the  fine  shape  of  the  ampersand  (&  :   3rd  line). 

THE  ILLUMINATION  (see  Characteristics  of 
Winchester  Illumination,  or  "  Opus  Anglicum,"  pp.  82,  83, 
Bradley  :  "  Illuminated  Letters  and  Borders ").  All 
the  CAPITALS  beginning  the  verses  are  in  raised, 
burnished  gold,  in  the  margin.  The  titles  are  in  red  in 
fancy  "  Rustic  Capitals"  (p.  297).  The  Line-Fillings 
consist  of  groups  of  red  dots,  in  threes  (.-.  .•.  .•.). 

This  extremely  legible  MS.  would  form  an  almost 
perfect  model  for  a  modern  formal  hand  (s  being  substi- 
tuted for  long  f,  and  the  straight  t  for  the  curved  "^  (see 
fig.  183):  the  removal  of  the  e  flourish  would  also  help 
readableness).  And  though  it  is  somewhat  large  and 
heavy  for  ordinary  use,  it  is  good  for  practising,  and 
might  be  developed  into  a  form  resembling  any  of  the 
more  difficult  later  forms  (Plates  IX.,  X.,  XX.). 

PLATE    IX. — English     Writing,    dated     1018.      Two 

portions  of  a  Charter  of  C  NUT.    Brit.  Museum.     (See 

also  enlargement,  Jig.  173.)     [PI.  reduced  scale  ±±ths.] 

(Shown  in  Brit.  Mus.,  Department  of  MSS.,  Case  V., 

No.  3.) 

THE   WRITING  resembles  that   in   Plate  VIII. 
416 


(see  above),  but  is  more  slender  and  rounder — the  pen    Notes  on  the 
being  a  little  less  slanted,  and  the  arches  more  curved,      Collotype 
and   showing   more  of  the  thin  stroke.     The  ascenders         Plates 
and  descenders  are  longer,  the  heads  are  more  marked, 
and  there  is  a  general  elegance  and  distinction,  due  per- 
haps to  the   MS.   being  a  charter.     Charter-hands  are 
generally  more  showy  and  less  legible  than  Book-hands, 
but  in  this  hand  there  is  great  legibility,  and  a  very  few 
changes  (similar  to  those  suggested  above)  would  make  it 
quite  suitable  for  modern  use.     Its  relation  to  the  Roman 
Small- Letter  is  obvious. 

NOTES. — The  (black)  ^  V  and  U  were  probably  built- 
up  with  the  writing  pen. 

The  forms  of  a,  e,  g1,  (h),  r,  may  be  noted  as  differing 
considerably  from  the  tenth- century  hand. 

The  combined  ra  (in  the  4th  line)  is  curious ;  and  the 
r  in  Anglorum — this  r  (which  represents  the  Bow  and 
Tail  of  R)  commonly  follows  the  round  letters  b,  O,  p, 
in  "  Gothic  "  writing  :  there  is  another  curious  form  in 
the  linked  rt  in  cartula  (last  line). 

The  word  CNUT  and  several  other  names  are  in 
ornamental  "Rustic"  Capitals  (see  p.  297). 

The  two  lines  of  English  from  another  part  of  the 
charter  have  very  long  stems  and  ornamental  serifs,  giving 
a  very  decorative  effect  (see  footnote,  p.  326). 


PLATE    X.— Italian   (first    half  of]    Twelfth -century 
Writing.      (Homilies    and    Lessons}.      Brit.     Mus., 
Harl.  MS.  7183.      (See  also  enlargement, Jig.  174.) 
(Shown  in  Brit.  Mus.,  Department  of  MSS.,  Case  C 
[lower  part],  No.  101.) 

THE  VOLUME.— Homilies  and  Lessons  for  Sun- 
days and  Festivals  from  Advent  to  Easter  Eve — contains 
317  leaves  (approximately  21 J  inches  by  15  inches); 
two  columns,  each  of  50  lines,  to  the  page.  The 
MARGINS  are,  approximately,  Inner  ij  inch,  Head 
2D  417 


Notes  on  the  i^  inch,  Side  3^  inches,  Foot  4^  inches  (between 
Collotype  columns  \\  inch  :  see  Plate).  The  portion  of  a  page, 
Plates  shown  in  Plate  X.,  consists  of  the  last  eleven  lines,  second 
column,  of  folio  78. 

WRITING.— This  has  all  the  qualities  of  good 
writing  (p.  239)  in  a  marked  degree,  and  I  consider 
it,  taken  all  round,  the  most  perfect  and  satisfactory 
penmanship  which  I  have  seen. 

Its  simplicity  and  distinctiveness  are  very  marked,  so 
also  are  its  character  and  freedom.  There  is  an  almost 
entire  absence  of  artificial  finish — the  terminals  are  natural 
hooks,  beaks  and  "  feet "  made  with  a  fine  sleight  of  hand 
(p.  311 ) — and  its  very  great  beauty  of  form  is  the  natural 
outcome  of  good  traditions  and  eminently  satisfactory 
craftsmanship. 

NOTES. — The  letters  are  very  wide,  and  the  inside 
shapes  differ  considerably  from  those  of  the  tenth-century 
MS.  (above) — with  which,  however,  there  is  a  consider- 
able affinity  (see  p.  416). 

The  f  is  longer  than  the  f,  the  g  has  a  very  fine  form 
with  a  closed  loop,  the  r  is  sharpened,  the  t  straight. 

Small  (Uncial)  CAPITALS  um  follow  the  Versal ; 
the  serifs  on  the  S  and  E  are  made  with  dexterous  move- 
ments of  the  nib  (p.  246),  and  resemble  those  on  the 
Versal  C.  Vand  U  are  both  used  for  the  consonant  (V). 

There  are  very  few  VERSAL  S  in  this  book :  the  C 
shown  is  in  red  (which  has  been  smudged). 

The  large  "ILLUMINATED  INITIALS"  in 
the  book  are  in  yellow,  blue,  and  red,  and  appear  to  me 
to  be  comparatively  poor,  at  least,  to  fall  short  of  the 
perfection  of  the  MS. 

Of  this  writing,  Sir  Edward  Maunde  Thompson 
("Greek  and  Latin  Palaeography,"  pp.  271-2)  says: — 

"  The  sense  of  grace  of  form  which  we  perceive  in  the  Lom- 
bardic  writing  of  Italy  is  maintained  in  that  country  in  the 
later  writing  of  the  new  minuscule  type,  which  assumes  under 
the  pens  of  the  most  expert  Italian  scribes  a  very  beautiful  and 
round  even  style.  This  style,  though  peculiarly  Italian,  extended 
418 


its  influence  abroad,  especially  to  the  south  of  France,   and    Notes  on  the 

became  the  model  of  Spanish  writing   at   a  later  time.     We       Collotype 

select  a  specimen  from  a  very  handsome  MS.  of  Homilies  of  the  p, 

first  half  of  the  I2th  century  (Pal.  Soc.  ii.  pi.  55),  written  in 

bold  letters  of  the  best  type,  to  which  we  shall  find  the  scribes 

of  the  fifteenth  century  reverting  in  order  to  obtain  a  model  for 

their  MSS.  of  the  Renaissance.     The  exactness  with  which  the 

writing  is  here  executed  is  truly  marvellous,  and  was  only  rivalled, 

not  surpassed,  by  the  finished  handiwork  of  its  later  imitators. 

"  It  will  of  course  be  understood  that  this  was  not  the  only 
style  of  hand  that  prevailed  in  Italy.  Others  of  a  much  rougher 
cast  were  also  employed.  But  as  a  typical  book-hand,  which 
was  the  parent  of  the  hands  in  which  the  greater  proportion  of 
carefully  written  MSS.  of  succeeding  periods  were  written  in 
Italy,  it  is  to  be  specially  noticed." 

(P.  284) — "  we  give  a  specimen  of  a  hand  of  the  Italian  Re- 
naissance, a  revival  of  the  style  of  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century, 
and  a  very  successful  imitation  of  a  MS.  of  that  period.  It  was 
this  practice,  followed  by  the  scribes  of  the  Renaissance,  of 
reverting  to  that  fine  period  of  Italian  writing  (see  p.  272)  to 
find  models  for  the  exquisitely  finished  MSS.  which  they  were 
compelled  to  produce  in  order  to  satisfy  the  refined  taste  of 
their  day,  that  influenced  the  early  printers  of  Italy  in  the 
choice  of  their  form  of  type."* 

(P.  285) — "  in  the  comparatively  small  number  of  extant 
literary  MSS.  of  a  later  date  than  the  close  of  the  [fifteenth] 
century  it  is  noticeable  that  a  large  proportion  of  them  are 
written  in  the  style  of  the  book-hand  of  the  Italian  Renaissance 
— the  style  which  eventually  superseded  all  others  in  the  print- 
ing press.  The  scribes  of  these  late  examples  only  followed 
the  taste  of  the  day  in  preferring  those  clear  and  simple 
characters  to  the  rough  letters  of  the  native  hands." 

*  The  specimen  hand  given  is  of  date  1466.  Plate  XVIII. 
may  here  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the  Renaissance  revival ; 
Plate  XX.  and  fig.  175  as  examples  of  later  MSS. 

PLATE  XL— English  (late)  Twelfth-century  Writing, 
with  flourished  Capitals.  (Breviary).  Brit.  Mus., 
Royal  MS.  2.A.X. 

(Shown  in  Brit.  Mus.,  Department  of  MSS.,  Case  D, 
No.  in.) 

THE  VOLUME— sometimes  called  the  St.  Albans 
or  Albanus  Psalter — contains  200  leaves  (6J  inches  by 

419 


Notes  on  the   4§  inches)  ;  twenty-seven  lines  to  the  page,  some  pages 
Collotype      have  two  columns.     MARGINS,  approximately,  Inner 
Plates          |  inch,  Head  under  J  inch  (see  Plate),  Side  i  J  inch  (part 
occupied  by  Versals),  Foot  i^  inch. 

THE  WRITING  is  fairly  legible,  but  approaches 
Black  Letter  (p.  331)  too  nearly  to  be  of  use  to  us  for 
ordinary  purposes.  Note  the  ornamental  Semi- Rustic 
Capitals  in  text.  Note  the  RULING  of  the  two  head 
lines  and  of  the  foot  line  is  carried  into  the  margin. 

THE  VERSALS.— The  main  interest  lies  in  the 
varied  forms  of  the  Versals,  which  are  most  beautifully 
made  in  red  and  green  alternately.  There  is  one  elaborate 
gold  initial  in  the  book,  and  several  Versals  in  blue  and 
white  (hollow  :  see  p.  208). 

The  five  O>s — anc^  t^e  -^  *n  ^ne  *ext — °n  this  page 
(folio  85b)  by  no  means  exhaust  the  varieties  of  D  alone, 
and  there  are  very  many  varieties  of  the  forms  of  the 
other  letters.  On  some  pages  each  line  begins  with  a 
small  Versal,  while  the  more  important  Initials  are  much 
larger,  varying  in  size  and  ornament. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  of  the  Versals  is  un- 
usually slender,  curved,  and  gradated.  A  rather  fine  pen 
seems  to  have  been  used  (p.  292),  and  though  the  letters 
are  upright,  the  natural  tendency  to  slant  the  pen  can  be 
detected  in  the  thickening  of  the  thin  parts — above,  on  the 
right,  and  below,  on  the  left — giving  the  suspicion  of  a  tilt 
to  the  O. 

The  O-part  of  each  Q  was  made  first,  and  the  tail  \ 
added.  This  is  very  obvious  in  the  D  in  the  text,  where 
a  stem  |  was  added  to  O  to  make  D. 

Note  the  dots  inside  the  Versals,  one  above  and  one 
below.  Originally  these  may  have  been  intended  to 
effect — or  hide — the  junction  of  the  thin  strokes,  by  a 
twirl  of  the  pen  at  the  end  of  the  first  stroke  and  the 
beginning  of  the  second,  thus  (,  *).  Their  use  is  very 
common  in  Versal  forms  (see  fig.  189),  and  besides  being 
decorative  in  the  ordinary  sense,  they  may  be  said  to 

420 


strengthen  the  thin  parts  (much  as  the  weakest  part  of  Notes  on  the 
the  loop  in  an  old  key  was  thickened  for  strength).  Collotype 

Note  the  right-hand  Bows  of  the  O  's  are  made  thinner, 
as  though  the  Rubricator  had  been  afraid  of  running  into 
the  text  in  making  their  last  curves — such  an  expert, 
however,  may  well  have  had  a  better  reason  for  it. 

PLATE  XII.— Illuminated  Initial  in  a  Flemish  MS. 
A.D.  1148.  (Latin  Bible).  Brit.  Museum,  Addl. 
MS.  14790. 

(Shown  in  Brit.  Museum,  Department  of  MSS.,  Case  C, 
No.  91.) 

THE  VOLUME — the  third,  and  most  interesting, 
of  this  MS.  Bible  (Numbered  14788-89-90) — contains 
223  leaves  (17  inches  by  ii-J  inches).  MARGINS, 
approximately,  Inner  i^  inch,  Head  (cut)  I  inch,  Side  2^ 
inches,  Foot  3-^  inches.  (Between  columns  ^f  inch.) 

THE  WRITING  is  a  not  very  legible  "Gothic." 
The  zigzag  tendency  exhibited,  especially  by  the  word 
niniuen  (Niniveh),  second  line,  is  unsuited  for  such  formal 
writing  (see  p.  484).  The  rapid  placing  of  the  Heads  of 
the  letters  is  such  that  they  appear  broken  and  partly  de- 
tached from  the  stems.  The  VERS  ALS  are  of  a  good 
type. 

THE  INITIAL  is  a  monogrammatic  ET.  The 
arms  of  the  round  6  terminate  in  leaves  folded  back,  its 
form  is  holloiv  and  inwoven  (p.  208),  and  gives  rise  to 
foliage,  which  fills  the  interior — passing  over  the  fish  and 
behind  Jonah.  Note  also  how  the  jaws  of  the  fish  are 
interlaced,  and  how  compactly  all  the  parts  are  put 
together. 

The  close  application  of  the  background  to  the  curves 
adds  to  the  general  compactness,  and  together  with  its 
spacing  from  the  straight  front  balances  the  masses 
(p.  424)  :  it  may  be  compared  to  the  even  spacing  of 
curved  and  straight  strokes  (see  fig.  53).  There  is  an 
extension  of  the  background  to  hold  the  fish's  tail. 

421 


Notes  on  the       THE  COLOURS— 
Collotype  Initial,  Foliage,  Fish  :   red  : 

Plates  Jonah : 

Bands  on  Initial, 
Hollows  in  Initial, 
Backs  of  folded  leaves 
Outer  background  : 
Dots  on  outer  ground : 
Inner  background : 


outlined  (  Parchment 
black:  /&  lined  (  left  plain. 

gold,  outlined  red. 


paled  green, 
red. 

paled  blue. 

We  may  not,  I  think,  attempt  to  imitate  the  complex 
12th-century  decoration  of  this  initial  (see  p.  196),  but 
the  treatment  of  the  elements  of  form  and  colour  is  very 
suggestive,  and  the  whole  piece  of  lettering  is  characteristic 
of  the  grand  style  in  which  a  book  was  at  that  time  begun. 
The  ARRANGEMENT  of  the  letters  themselves  is 
very  simple,  and  might  be  made  good  use  of  (fig.  220). 

INCIPIT-JONASiPPHAf 

(fropheta) 


A 
C 
T 
U 
M. 

E 

S 

T. 


verbum  d(<w«)ni  ad  jonam  filiu(w)  amathi 
dicens.  Surge  &  vade  in  niniven  civi- 
tatem  magnam.  &  pr(«)edica  in  ea. 

422  FlG-  22°- 


PLATE  XIII.— English   (2nd  half)    Thirteenth-century   Notes  on  the 
Writing  and  Illumination.     (Latin  Bible).     Ex  libris       Collotype 
S.  C.  Cockerel!.  Plates 

THE  VOLUME— probably  written  at  York— con- 
tains 427  leaves  (8  inches  by  5^  inches)  :  two  columns  to 
the  page  :  MARGINS,  approx.  :  Inner  f  inch,  Head 
|-  inch,  Side  |  inch,  Foot  i~^  inch.  (Between  the 
columns  f-  inch. )  The  pages  have  been  cut  down. 

THE  WRITING  is  very  small,  and  there  are  many 
contractions.1  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries 
the  whole  Bible,  written  in  this  fashion,  was  often  small 
enough  to  be  carried  in  the  pocket.  Note  the  closed  & 
and  the  7  form  of  &.  The  page  is  RULED  with  50 
lines ;  the  49  lines  of  writing  lie  between  these,  so  that 
in  each  case  the  ascenders  touch  the  line  above,  and  the 
descenders,  the  line  below.  Note  the  double  lines  in  the 
Foot  margin  (see  p.  343). 

VERSALS. — A  very  narrow  type  is  used  in  the 
narrow  margins :  the  example  shown  is  in  red,  flourished 
blue  ;  it  begins  the  second  chapter  (Erange/o  ephesi,  &c. ), 
which  is  also  marked  by  coloured  Roman  Numerals  at 
the  side  (II).  The  page  heading  is  "  APOCA "  in 
small  red  and  blue  Versals. 

THE  ILLUMINATED  INITIAL  is  "histori- 
ated  " — i.e.  it  contains  a  picture  illustrating  the  text,  viz. 
a  representation  of  S.  John  writing  to  the  Seven  Churches 
— purely  conventional  forms,  or  rather  symbols,  for  the 
most  part,  are  used  and  beautifully  fitted  into  the  available 
space.  The  greater  size  and  more  careful  drawing  of 
the  human  figure  (the  centre  of  interest)  is  characteristic 
of  a  fine  convention.  The  slope  of  the  vellum  page  on 
which  S.  John  is  writing,  and  even  the  manner  in  which 
the  quill  is  held,  are  such  as  would  naturally  be  employed 
by  a  scribe  (see  frontispiece,  &  p.  67). 

1  The  Apocalypse  here  begins  "  APocalipfis  igu  xi"  (for 
IHU  XPI,  derived  from  the  Greek  and  used  as  a  mediaeval  Latin 
contraction  for  Jesu  Christi), 

423 


Notes  on  the        The  capitals  of  the  pillars  mark  the  position  of  the 

Collotype      cross-bar  of  A.     The  top  serif  is  carried  up  and  forms 

PJates         a  bud,  which  gives  rise  to  leaf-like  flourishes ;  the  free 

thin  stem  runs  down  forming  a  grotesque,  which  gives  out 

a  leaf-like  tongue.     In  either  case  the  object — in  every 

sense  recreative — is  a  renewal  of  interest  in  the  designed, 

elongated,  growth  of  the  forms. 

Note  the  curved  thickening  of  AJs  left  stem  ends 
nearly  level  with  the  foot  of  the  right  stem.  This  gives 
balance  to  the  letter  (see  R,  fig.  81  &  A,  fig.  189),  and 
preserves  the  essential  form,  which  suffers  no  distortion  by 
the  thinner  continuation  below. 

Note  the  balancing  of  the  background  mass  on  the 
straight  and  curved  sides  of  the  Initial  (as  in  Plate  XII., 
see  above)  ;  also  the  extension  and  shape  of  the  back- 
ground accompanying  the  drawn  out  parts  of  the  letter. 

COLOURS  of  Initial- 
Right  stem  :  red  )  with  white  lines 
Left  stem  and  serif:  blue  j  and  patterns. 
L.  stem,  lower  half,  &  dragon  :  pale  "  lake." 
The  back-  (  outer  :                      pale  "  lake" 

ground     I  inner :  blue, 

{counter-    |  lower  extension  :    blue, 
charged}    [  final  flourish  :          pale  "  lake." 
Band  (dark)  down  left  side,  ( 
dragon's  wings,  6  "berries,"  <  burnished  gold. 
halo,  seat,  tops  of  pillar  caps:  ( 
Leaves  (dark)  &  pillar  caps :      red. 
Small  stems  &  leaves  :  green. 

Here  again  no  natural  work  would  come  of  a  modern 
attempt  to  imitate  so  complex  a  "  design  " — natural  and 
even  inevitable  600  years  ago.  But  the  spirit  of  delicacy 
and  fantasy,  the  ingenious  contrivance,  and  the  balancing 
and  disposal  of  form  and  colour  shown  by  the  antique 
art,  may  well  be  matter  for  imitation  by  the  modern 
draughtsman-illuminator,  and  even  by  the  mere  penman. 

424 


PLATE  XIV. — Thirteenth-century  Line- finishings  :   Pen-    Notes  on  the 
'work.      (Psalter].      Brit.     Museum,      Royal     MS.       Collotype 
i.  D.  x.  Plates 

THE  LINE-FINISHINGS  (seep.  205),  of  which 
there  are  very  many  throughout  the  book,  all  in  red  or 
blue  pen-work,  are  very  varied.  Nine  kinds  are  shown 
in  the  plate  (which  represents  about  a  quarter  of  a  page), 
and  three  others  from  the  same  MS.  are  given  in  figs. 
87  (£)  and  1 26  (/,£). 

The  directions  of  the  thick  and  thin  strokes  indicate 
a  pen  held  at  right  angles  to  its  usual  position  (almost 
"  upside  down,"  in  fact:  see  fig.  126,  <§r),  and  the 
penmanship  exhibits  great  speed  and  lightness  of  hand — 
the  rapidity  and  skill  are  indeed  quite  remarkable  (e.g. 
in  the  Lion  in  the  eighth  line). 

Note  that,  though  the  writing  occasionally  runs  into 
the  margin,  the  line-finishings  stop  at  the  marginal-line. 

The  photograph  shows  red  dark  and  blue  light :  e.g. 
the  Bird  is  red,  the  Lion  and  the  Fish  are  blue.  The 
fifth  Line-finishing  is  a  red  filigree  with  blue  "  berries  " 
— it  can  hardly  be  described  as  a  "  floral  growth,"  as  the 
"  branching  "  is  reversed  :  the  rubricator  gained  speed  and 
uniformity  by  the  simple  repetition  of  the  whorls  all  along 
the  line — the  upper  branches  were  probably  put  in  after- 
wards, and  the  "  berries  "  were  added  later  when  he  was 
making  the  blue  Line-finishings. 

The  more  complex  decoration  (not  shown  in  the  plate) 
in  this  MS.  is  inferior  to  the  penmanship :  the  small 
background  Capitals  with  which  the  verses  begin — pre- 
sumably put  in  by  a  different  hand — are  more  pretentious, 
and  do  not  match  the  Line-finishings. 

General  Note. — When  a  space  occurs  at  the  end  of  a 
line  of  writing,  it  is  often  best  to  leave  it,  and  in  a  plain 
MS.,  if  it  be  "  well  and  truly  "  written,  there  is  no  objec- 
tion to  varying  lengths  of  line  (see  pp.  263,  371).  But 
a  book,  such  as  a  Psalter,  divided  into  many  short  verses 
— in  which  the  last  line  usually  falls  short  of  the  marginal 

425 


Notes  on  the  line — offers   a   fair    field    for  such  simple  and  effective 
Collotype      decoration.       (See    also    pp.  428,  486,    fig.    130,    and 
Plates          Plate  XXIII.) 

P L> ATE  XF. — English  Writing  and  Illumination,  circa 
1284  A.D.  (Psalter).  Brit.  Museum,  Addl.  MS. 
24686. 

THE  WRITING  is  a  fine,  freely  formed,  «  Gothic  " 
331).  Note,  the  i's  are  "  dotted."  Note  the  double 

ARGINAL  LINES  (p.  343). 

THE  SMALL  INITIALSare  of  the«Lombardic" 
type  (p.  210),  in  which  the  Serifs  are  much  thickened 
and  ornamented.  Note  the  tails  of  the  Q's  are  turned  to 
the  left  to  clear  the  writing.  The  LINE-FILLINGS 
match  the  small  initials  (p.  193). 

THE  LARGE  INITIAL,  &c.— The  plate  shows 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  and  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 

Psalm  ( O  omine  quitf  Ijabitabit).  Note  "Arabic" 

numerals  (15)  in  margin. 

The  tail  of  the  Initial  fo  is  formed  of  a  dragon,  the 
head  of  which  rests  on  the  O-part :  its  wings  project  into 
the  inner  margin  (and  these  in  the  plate,  which  shows  a 
fragment  of  a  verso  page,  run  into  the  fold  between  the 
pages)  :  the  tail  (together  with  the  background)  descends 
till  a  convenient  point  is  reached  from  which  the  lower 
scroll-work  springs.  The  tail,  wing,  and  claws  above, 
belong  to  a  magpie  which  is  perched  on  the  initial. 

THE  DRAWING  :  see  reference  to  this  at  p.  203, 
and  below. 

Sir  Edward  Maunde  Thompson  (p.  39,  "  English 
Illuminated  MSS.")  says  of  this — 

" — the  Additional  MS.  24686  in  the  British  Museum,  known 
as  the  Tenison  Psalter,  from  its  having  once  formed  part  of  the 
library  of  Archbishop  Tenison.  This  psalter  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  illuminated  English  manuscripts  of  its  time,  but  un- 
fortunately only  in  part,  for  it  was  not  finished  in  the  perfect 
426 


style  in  which  it  was  begun  ...  in  the  first  quire  of  the  text    Notes  on  the 
the  ornamentation  is  of  peculiar  beauty.   .  .  ."  x  Collotype 

" — the  progress  of  the  art   [since  the  earlier  part  of  the  pi 

thirteenth  century]  .  .  .  is  .  .  .  manifest.  There  is  more 
freedom  in  the  drawing,  the  stiffness  of  the  earlier  examples 
is  in  great  measure  overcome  ;  and  the  pendant  has  thrown  out 
a  branch  which  has  already  put  forth  leaves.  A  great  variety 
of  colours,  blue,  rose,  vermilion,  lake,  green,  brown,  as  well 
as  burnished  gold,  is  employed  in  the  composition  of  the  large 
initial  and  its  accompanying  pendant  and  border,  and  the  small 
initials  are  of  gold  laid  on  a  ground  of  blue  or  lake,  and  filled 
with  lake  or  blue ;  while  the  ribbons  which  fill  up  the  spaces 
at  the  ends  of  the  verses  are  alternately  of  the  same  colours  and 
are  decorated  with  patterns  in  silver  on  the  blue  and  in  gold  on 
the  lake." 

"The  group  of  the  dismounted  knight  despatching2  a 
gryphon,  which  has  proved  too  much  for  the  horse,  upon 
whose  dying  body  the  expectant  raven  has  already  perched, 
is  tinted  in  lighter  colours.  It  is  an  instance  of  the  use  to 
which  marginal  space  was  put,  particularly  by  English  artists, 
for  the  introduction  of  little  scenes,  such  as  episodes  in  romances 
or  stories,  games,  grotesque  combats,  social  scenes,  &c.,  often 
drawn  with  a  light  free  hand  and  most  artistic  touch.  Without 
these  little  sketches,  much  of  the  manners  and  customs,  dress, 
and  daily  life  of  our  ancestors  would  have  remained  for  ever 
unknown  to  us." 

1  It  is  supposed   that  the  book   was  at  first  intended  as  a 
marriage  gift  for  Alphonso,  son  of  Edward  I. 

2  The    characteristic    over    and    under    arrangement    of    the 
gryphon's  upper  and  lower  bill,  makes  this  doubtful. 

PLATE    XVI.— Italian  Fourteenth-century  MS.,  Brit. 
Mus.,  Addl.  MS.  28841. 

THE  VOLUME  :  one  of  two  (the  other  numbered 
27695),  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  Virtues  and  Vices  (The 
miniatures,  drawings,  &c.,  probably  by  "the  Monk  of 
Hyeres,"  Genoa).  The  vellum  leaves  have  been  sepa- 
rated, and  are  now  preserved  in  paper  books.  The  leaf 
illustrated  shows  a  margin  of  vellum  of  less  than  T3^-  inch 
all  round  (the  plate). 

The  decorative  borders  are  much  more  naturalistic  in 

427 


Notes  on  the   form  and  colouring  than  any  other  old  illumination  that  I 
Collotype      have  seen  (see  reference  to  Plate  XVI.,  p.  203). 
Plates  The  foliage  is  a  delicate  green,  the  berries  are  dark 

purple,  the  single  fruits  plain  and  pale  orange-red  ;  the  two 
beetles  in  crimson  and  brown  are  made  darker  and  too 
prominent  in  the  photograph.  The  bands  of  small 
"  Lombardic "  Capitals  are  in  burnished  gold. 

Note  how  skilfully  and  naturally  the  upper  corners  of 
the  border  are  managed,  and  also  the  beautiful  way  in  which 
the  branches  run  into  and  among  the  text  (see  p.  213). 

PLATE  XVII. — French  Fifteenth-century  Writing,  'with 
Illuminated  Borders.      Ex  libris  E.  Johnston. 

THE  PAGE  9j  inches  by  6i  inches :  MARGINS, 
approx.  :  Inner  \\  inch,  Head  i|  inch,  Side  2f  inches, 
Foot  2|  inches  (the  edges  have  been  slightly  cut  down). 
The  marginal  lines  (from  head  to  foot  of  the  page)  and 
the  writing  lines  are  RULED  in  faint  red. 

THE  WRITING  is  a  late  formal  "Gothic"— the 
thin  strokes  have  evidently  been  added  (p.  47).  The 
written  Capitals  are  blotted  with  yellow  (see  p.  140). 
The  ILLUMINATED  INITIAL  Q  is  in  blue, 
white  lined,  on  a  gold  ground,  contains  a  blue  flower  and 
five  ornaments  in  "lake."  The  LINE-FILLINGS 
are  in  blue  and  "lake,"  separated  by  a  gold  circle, 
triangle,  or  lozenge. 

THE  FILIGREE  ILLUMINATION  springs 
from  the  initial  in  the  narrow  margin,  and  from  a  centre 
ornament  (see  "  knot,"  fig.  127)  in  the  wide  side  margin. 
The  side  margins  are  treated  similarly  on  either  page 
(see  p.  213);  the  inner  margins  are  generally  plain. 
This  repetition  gives  to  the  pages  a  certain  sameness — 
which  is  a  characteristic  rather  than  a  fault  of  the 
treatment. 

The  border  on  the  recto  of  the  vellum  leaf  shows 
through  on  the  verso  or  back  of  the  leaf.  The  main 
lines  of  the  first  border,  however,  are  freely  traced  and 

428 


followed  on  the   verso   (and  so  nearly  hidden)   by  the   Notes  on  the 
second    border.     This    is   also    suggestive  of  the  more      Collotype 
rapid  methods  of  book  production  in  the  1 5th  century.  Plates 

COLOURS- 

Stems,  tendrils,  &c. :     black. 

T  J  ivy- shaped  (burnished   gold,     out-  I  plain. 

'8  |  lanceolate  :  \    lined  black  (p.  187).  \furred. 

Flowers,  buds,  centre  f^»    "^",?r   ^T  S7~A 

ornaments,  &c. :      J    pered  with  white,  and  shaded 

/c  x  )    with  pure  colour ;  white  mark- 

(oee  p.  1 02.  i  i  i     r  !•     j 

V    mgs  ;  the  forms  not  outlined. 

This  type  of  illumination  is  discussed  in  pp.  197-202. 
Its  chief  points  are  its  simplicity  and  rapidity.  A  penman 
or  a  novice  in  illuminating  can,  by  taking  a  little  pains, 
beautify  his  MSS.  easily  and  quickly ;  and  he  may  per- 
haps pass  on  from  this  to  "  higher  "  types  of  illumination. 


PLATE  XV I  I L— Italian  Fifteenth-century  Writing  and 
Illumination.  (Perotti's  translation  of  Polybius}.  Ex 
libris  H.  Tates-Thompson. 

THE  VOLUME  consists  of  174  leaves  (13^  inches 
by  9  inches)  ;  35  lines  to  the  page.  The  plate  shows 
a  portion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Initial  (recto}  page. 

THE  WRITING.— The  Capitals  are  simple- written, 
slanted-pen  "  Roman  "  —  slightly  ornamental  —  forms. 
They  are  freely  copied  on  a  large  scale  in  fig.  168  :  see 
p.  297.  The  Small-letters  match  the  Capitals — they  are 
"  Roman "  forms  with  a  slight  "  Gothic "  tendency. 
Both  these  and  the  Capitals  would  make  very  good 
models  for  free  Roman  hands. 

THE  INITIAL  is  a  "Roman"  A  in  burnished 
gold.  Note  the  exceedingly  graceful  shaping  of  the 
limbs,  the  ornamental,  V-shaped  cross-bar,  and  the 
absence  of  serifs  (see  fig.  116). 

429 


Notes  on  the        The  "  White  Fine  Pattern"   (see  p.  202),  most  deli- 
Collotype      cately  and  beautifully  drawn,  interlaces   with  the  letter 
Plates          and  itself,  and  covers  the  BACKGROUND  very  evenly. 
The  interstices  of  the  background  are  painted  in  blue, 
red,  and  green,  and  its  edge  is  adapted  to  the  slightly 
projecting  flowers  and  leaves.     There  are  groups  (.'.  and 
. . . )  of  white  dots  on  the  blue  parts  of  the  background. 

THE  BORDER  (of  which  a  small  part  is  shown) 
is  approximately  \  inch  wide  in  the  narrow  margin  at 
the  side  of  the  text — it  is  separate  from  the  Initial.  It 
extends  above  and  below  the  text,  where  its  depth  is 
greater,  matching  the  greater  depth  of  the  margins.  Its 
treatment  is  similar  to,  though  perhaps  a  little  simpler 
than,  that  of  the  Initial  decoration. 


PLATE    XIX.— Italian  MS.,  dated  1481.      Ex  libris 
S.  C.  Coderell 

"Part  of  a  [verso]  page  from  a  book  containing  the 
Psalter  of  St.  Jerome  and  various  Prayers,  written  and 
decorated  by  Joachinus  de  Gigantibus  of  Rotenberg  in 
1481  for  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  Joachinus  was  employed  at 
Naples  by  Ferdinand  I.,  and  there  are  other  fine  examples 
of  his  work  at  the  British  Museum  and  the  Biblioth£que 
Nationale,  Paris.  In  each  of  these,  as  well  as  in  the 
present  book,  he  states  that  he  was  both  scribe  and 
illuminator."— [S.  C.  C.] 

THE  VOLUME  contains  31  leaves  (6J  inches  by 
4^  inches)  :  MARGINS,  approx.  :  Inner  J  inch,  Head 
•|  inch,  Side  ij  inch,  Foot  I J  inch.  (The  head  margin, 
together  with  the  edge  of  the  book-cover,  is  shown  in  the 
plate. ) 

THE  WRITING.— Very  clear,  slightly  slanted-pen 
"  Roman."  Note  the  blending  of  b  and  p  with  e  and  o 
(see  fig.  76,  &  p.  77).  The  CAPITALS  are  quite  simple 
and  plain,  made  (in  (A)NIMA  CHRISTI  and  in  text) 
in  black  with  the  text  pen.  Note  the  long,  waved  serifs 

[Continued  on  p.  48 1 . 


THE   COLLOTYPE 
PLATES 


StNATV 

Ik      A    V*\  f    ^    A     T-*    ' 
M  r  C  Ax  ^ 
1  V  1  1      ^~;J    \  L~, 


I  f\ 

w 


All    \  Tl ~\  T~  S —  ^      A    ^ 
DL)  r *L    ^  H 
A  >w ^     j-v /     j\, -      V^     ^    ;<^--y         \ 


Plate  I.  —  Portion  of  Inscription  .on    base    of  Trajan   Column,    Rome, 
circa  114  A.D.     Scale  approx.  Jth  linear.    (See  also  Plate  II.) 


7  foot. 


2  feet. 
433 


Plate  II.— Alphabet  from  Trajan  Inscription       Circa  114   A.D.) 

Scale   approx.  \  linear.      (See  also  Plate  i).      Note.—L  and  O  are 

shown  sideways  in  the  2nd  line. 


435 


5  3  i  1  *i 

'r1  X  cr 


>".    <£    ULJ    - 


© 

- 


OH 

&^^.G 


Cfl    **)'ft 


Plate  III.— Written  Roman  Capitals,  Fourth  or  Fifth  Century. 
(Virgil's   "jEneid"). 


437 


ecce  p  i  cxi  s  cxi  i 

.        tn  x:  is  i  J  ?VR<J  i  r 


ei 


L-    cL 


;  iDeoiT>T 


o  Ot  ice  ixi  r 


IV>O>I'I  I  l^^  ICIOJ, 


XCJCRI  r 


o 


xi 


ci 

re  Re 

O  R  Xj^l  I 


Id  T  I  S 


oi  ocieNieM  ICIOB 
-^  leticYisi  XJBI  i  IS 


r  i 


Plate  IV.— Uncial  Writing,  probably  Italian  Sixth  or  Seventh  Century. 
(Latin  Gospels).     Brit.  Museum,  Harl.  MS.  1775. 


H   Z        to 

1  III 


f?  v  Z  -  =  v 

K^8$Sl» 

a>  en    X,     -£ 


Plato   Y'rVncXal  r^ritin§'   Probably  Continental  Seventh  Century 
b.  John).    Ex  Libns  Stonyhurst  College.    (See  also  enlargement, 


(Gospel  of 
fig.  169.) 


••..,JI 

US 


iUicm< 


cesil 


i  eacba 


niutros 


Plate   VI.—  Half  Uncial  (Irish),   Seventh   Century,    "Book   of  KeHs' 
(Latin  Gospels).    Ex  Libris  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 


ST 

<v  fptYMVf    ^m 

QU1 


ivrmjui   oquio  sao 


8Tt7Uo6lS 


pGogtnseum 

yn*^  $or*       iu*k         J'l 

Sicerapuos  o 

es 
sapcficur^ 


Plate  VII.— nan  uncial  (English),     circa  700  A.D.     "Durham  Book 

446 


cA> 


\  . 


_»t 


•s-i  i^lxl 

5-U 1  r  if 

^     --fc 


\ 


6^6 


<^. 


>-H     « 

Plate  VIII.— English    Tenth-century  Writing.     (Psalter).     Brit.   Mus., 
Harl.  MS.  2904.     (See  enlargement  fig.  172.) 


Plate  IX.— English  Writing:,  dated  1018.    Two  portions  of  a  Charter  of 
CNUT.    Brit.  Museum.    (See  also  enlargement,  fig.  173.) 

449 


**•*.-  c-'-iii.   1        i*    .    .-  . 

Plate  X.— Italian  (first  half   of)   Twelfth-century  Writing.   (Homilies  and 
Lessons).    Brit.  Mus.,  Harl.  MS.  7183.    (See  also  enlargement,  fig.  174). 


:xltgni  efftoamur  ad  opuotuf  tujp 
omforao  .  ?drim  .  Yiotu  lofiis  bapnftpX 
onfps  ds  .  ur  famtUaniap  uiainfi 
Uraf  mctdao.c^  bean  lo^is^prccurffeis^ 
.addi  quon  pttdpic 
emaT'.  Aritn  nrm 
qui  prpfcm£  die  bonmaftilcm 
obif  tn  bcaa  io6is  naaurcaccftafti.cla, 
poptfe  tutf  fpuaUu  giam^audioi):  .  ce  omniu 


Uk  s  qut  nx>bif  bcaroy:  \iolu 
aptto^ruo^  Pern  o^  PauU  tiacaliaagti 
^      fa  pttnt  conccdtf  .mbut  cjs  rhm  uoffcmp  cf 
V    bgicftaif  ptjacnm  jc^  oaanonibuf  adiuuan. 
|      |squibodicrnidicmaptby.uiQy:lHftti 
^  ^  p«n  (t  pauli  margmo  confeocdh.da, 
^c&f  uif  co#  m  omnit?;  lequt  prcctptii  .pquo 
~f-~  mf  fumpfrcpCQMliu  .?.  Comemo^  Eivli 
^squimutanidmc^nraubcan  PauU 
^  ^  'ape  pttdicaaontdoaiifh.danobif  qsr" 
>%o     uc  oiiurnaratiaacoUnuircf  apudtr  pamoq 
Vtuafaraamuf.?.  Oa  sci  lofiisj)lqu^fai 
/     |scumfd£tperabeam  PoruntOcf  JLpJtb; 
^^ambiUanitmftjuctife  ncmcrgtttr  osbt. 
c^  coap«n  ouf  Paula  xtrao  najufra^amcdcp 
ftindo  pctagi  libdxiutr.^iaudt  nofppiouf  & 
concede  ur  amboi^ 


Plate    XI.—  English   (late)   Twelfth-century    Writing,    with   flourished 
Capitals.    (Breviary).     Brit.  Mus.,  Royal  MS.  2.  A.X. 


453 


trwtgn4m.<«  pttdta  tti 


Plate  XII.—  Illuminated   Initial  in  a  Flemish   MS.  A.D.  1148  (Latin 
Bible).     Brit.  Museum,  Addl.  MS.  14790. 

455 


ubu  ?k  Ttcfttmoniamttfttt 


Plate  XIII.— English  (2nd  half)  Thirteenth-century  Writing  and  Illumination 
(Latin  Bible).     Ex.  Libris  S.  C.  Cockerell. 

458 


dte  tongt^atwrntf me'qu 


Plate    X IV.— Thirteenth-century  Line-finishings:    Penwork.    (Psalter). 
Brit.  Museum,  Royal  MS.  i,  D.X. 

460 


Plate  XV.— English  Writing  and  Illumination,  circa  1284  A.D.    (Psalter). 
Brit.  Museum,  Addl.  MS.  24686. 

462 


"->  IS 

iL 


&« 


W? 

V%< 
-AW-.VS.. 


s 


^^S^ilBS 

itCitnKNt|^M(t4^o 


'fi 


Plate  XVI.— Italian  Fourteenth-century  MS  ,  Brit.  Mus.,  Addl.  MS.  28*41. 
464 


9BMT       *^~:         *~^.       ^"^     ,  BMP       ^^       ,  F— "   C 

w  a  «  «  4*  wS  §* 


Plate     XVII.— French    Fifteenth-century    Writing-,    with 
Illuminated  Borders.    Ex.  Libris  E.  Johnston. 


465 


Plate     XVIII.— Italian    Fifteenth-century    Writing   and    Illumination 
(Perotti's  translation  of  Polybius).   Ex  libris  H.  Yates-Thompson, 

467 


IMJ^  CHRIST! 


cbn/ti^  lalua 

cbrtftx  m  e; 
briamcr/  Ac^ua  laterts  cbrt{)i 
lauame;.  Sudorutiltxxs  xpt 
defende;  me/. Ta/Tto  ckrtfb 

TvLors  ctrtAt. 
Utctatncr-  Sapienna,  cbnfk 
doce me;-  Oboner  tefu 
dttncf-ltv 


j 


Plate  XIX -Italian  MS.    dated  1481.    Ex  libris  S.  C.  Cockerell. 

469 


Content  hoc  pfjlterLurrt:  et 


ranumctcrny- 
!  {cipe-diorLerisdoii  Oro> 
miner  cteus  ommpotcns 
iftos  t>£iLmos  coniecnitos  c[s 

eoo  tiid.ipnLL5  d.ecAii-cai-e^ca  - 
o  ~Z 

p  to  i  IT  n  o  nore/n  o  nun  is  tut 


clomme':' 


Ciio  rum_  p  ro  m  erm  j.icrmio 
fta,  famulo  too  :  et  p 


Plate  XX.— One  page  of  an  Italian  (late)  Fifteenth-century  MS. 
Ex.  libris  S.  C.  Cockerell. 

47 


P  mope  in  uifla  oltra  lusato  offoa  ; 
Tal,  cba  noia  ct  <Ju<%no  bebbt  me  (Icjio 


Frmo  I'ardir  ;  con  mortc  (tcerfea  ctdura  , 
A  ttoqwljui  molujiatt  prcpo  , 
Tfufcir  d'a-ffanno  htini  corta  maprcfa.  • 
H  or  cbiamo  ;  cf  ncn  jo/ar  a/f  r«  dj/cjn  ; 
Pur  lui  ;  chc  lomlrasua.  lasciando  mcco 


morirlui,  cbfjulmo  corr': 
tucn  daltro,  cfjc  (ifl  tradtjrr^uat  • 
non  u^ltfl  batter  col  mto  do/ore 

Injin  d/twiia  dal^wrno  ultimo  aumto  •. 

E  t  tanto  ilpianytro,  tju&ntwthmat  •    . 

Dehptrchcinanzi  aluinonmifyo^luu 

L  a  mortal  qonna;no  mcnutfti  nnma  ? 

S^aluiucrfuiudocc,Dcrchc  tardo 

S  ono  a/  i??0nr  :  un  dardo 


P  arimcnfc  amto  »ot  traffitto  et  ro^o  : 
cfcejicomcunuolerjcmpri?  nttcnnt 
Viutndo;  C03i  jjenft  anchor  nhaucfse 


[?o  aljuo  tempo,  o  <juc/ 


Plate  XXI.— Italian  (early)  Sixteenth-century  "cursive"  or  "Italic"  MS. 
Ex.  libris  S.  C.  Cockerell.    (See  enlargement,  fig.  178.) 

474 


Plate    XXII.— "Communion   Service"    written   and   illuminated   by 
E.  Johnston,  1902  A.D.    ("Office  Book,"  Holy  Trinity  Church, 

Hastings).    Reduced  (nearly  f  scale). 
476 


on 


but  he  bestired  himself  as  well; 
tied  hi&  boree  up  with  hie  other 
turned  over  on  hid  side  ,  60 
into  the 


tf>rouo/h  a  chink  in  Hie  bower,  a 
in  the  sVy  ;  and  he  daw  one  there 
the  re$tt  and  he  beo;an  to  da>?  :  ^ 


if  d 


ttlc  etarr  %8$i  eee  thee  plain  t3ti 


e  woon  drawd  to  her  tra 
colette  16  vmth  thee  there , 
love. of" the  orolden  hair. 


Plate   XXIII.— The    story    of   Aucassin    and    Nicolette,    written    and 
illuminated  by  W.  H.  Cowlishaw,  1898  A.D. 

478 


Plate  XXIV.— Inscription    cut    in    Stone  by   A.  E.  R.  Gill,    1903    A.D. 

Reduced  (Tsff   scale).      Note.— To   view  these  incised  letters  have   the 

light  on  the  left  of  the  plate  (or  cover  with  thin  tissue  paper). 

480 


(see  p.   289).      The    last  two  lines    of  the    preceding   Notes  on  the 
prayer  are  made  in  burnished  gold  with  a  larger  pen.        Collotype 

THE  INITIAL  A,  its  frame,  the  frame  of  the  Plates 
border,  and  the  "furred"  berries  (.*.)  are  all  in  bur- 
nished gold,  outlined  black.  The  "white  vine  pattern" 
is  rather  simpler,  and  has  a  rather  thicker  stalk  (in  pro- 
portion) than  that  in  the  previous  plate  (see  above).  Its 
treatment  is  very  similar,  but  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
border  is  in  this  case  attached  to  the  Initial,  and  the 
pattern  has  almost  an  appearance  of  springing  from  the 
Initial.  The  pattern — save  one  escaped  leaf — is  straitly 
confined,  by  gold  bars,  throughout  the  length  of  the  text, 
but  at  the  ends  it  is  branched  out  and  beautifully  flourished 
in  the  free  margins  above  and  below.  These  terminals 
of  the  pattern  having  a  broad  blue  outline  (dotted  white) 
may  be  said  to  carry  their  background  with  them. 

The  (recto)  page  opposite  that  shown  in  the  plate  has 
an  initial  D  and  a  border  similarly  treated,  and  each  one 
of  the  Psalms  and  Prayers  throughout  the  book  is  begun 
in  like  manner. 

PLATE   XX. — One  page  of  an  Italian  (late]  Fifteenth- 
century  MS.     Ex  libris  S.  C.  CockerelL 

"  From  a  book  containing  the  Penitential  Psalms  in 
Italian,  the  Psalter  of  St.  Jerome,  and  various  prayers. 
Written  with  great  delicacy  by  Mark  of  Vicenza  for 
someone  named  Evangelista  [see  nth  line]  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Other  works  of  this 
accomplished  scribe  are  known." — [S.  C.  C.] 

THE  VOLUME — of  which  a  complete  (recto)  page 
is  shown — contains  60  leaves  (5!  inches  by  3f  inches)  : 
MARGINS,  approx.  :  Inner  \  inch,  Head  f  inch,  Side 
IT3^  inch,  Foot  iij  inch. 

This  very  fine  WRITING  is  typical  of  the  practical 
style  and  beautiful  workmanship  which  should  be  the  aim 
of  a  modern  scribe  (see  pp.  47,  310). 

It  is  written  with  a  very  narrow  nib,  hence  the  pen- 
2  H  481 


Notes  on  the   forms  are  not  so  obvious  as  in  some  early  formal  hands  ; 

Collotype      and  for  this  reason  alone  it  would  be  better  to  practise 

Plates         such   a  hand  as  the  tenth-century  MS.    (Plate  VIII.) 

before  seriously  attempting  to  model  a  hand  on  the  above 

(see^pp.  416,  311,  324). 

The  use  of  a  fine  pen  is  apt  to  flatter  the  unskilled 
penman,  and  he  finds  it  hard  to  distinguish  between 
delicate  pen-work  which  has  much  character,  and  that 
which  has  little  or  none.  And  he  will  find,  after  some 
knowledge  of  penmanship  gained  in  practice  with  a  broad 
nib,  that  the  copying  of  this  fine  Italian  writing — while 
in  reality  made  much  more  feasible — may  even  appear 
more  difficult  than  before. 

CONSTRUCTION.— The  pen  has  a  moderate  slant 
— see  thin  stroke  in  e«  The  letters  are  very  square,  the 
tops  flat  (especially  in  m,  n>  and  r)>  and  the  lower  parts 
flat  (as  in  u)-  This  shows  the  same  tendency  that  there 
is  in  the  tenth  century  and  other  hands  to  avoid  thin  or 
high  arches  in  the  letters. 

The  feet  in  some  of  the  letters  (in  i,  for  example)  are 
in  the  nature  of  stroke-serifs,  but  the  pen  probably  made 
these  with  an  almost  continuous  movement — from  the  stem, 
Note — the  fine  form  of  the  a  ; 

that  b  and  1  have  an  angle  where  the  stem  joins 

the  lower  part ; 

that  f  was  made  something  like  t>  and  the  upper 
part  was  added :  this  was  a  common  mode 
— see  fig.  1 80  (the  f  shown  in  plate  is  un- 
fortunately not  a  good  specimen)  ; 
that  g — a  very  graceful  letter — lacks  the  coup- 
ling serif; 
that  i,  p,  u  have  triangular  heads,  and  m,  n,  r 

hooks  ; 
that  the  ascenders  have  triangular  heads,  and  the 

descenders  p  and  q,  stroke-serifs ; 
that  the  ascending  and   descending   stems   are 
longer  than  the  bodies,  and  the  writing  is  in 
consequence  fairly  widely  spaced. 

482 


Like  most  of  the  finest  writings,  this  bears  evidences    Notes  on  the 
of  considerable  speed    (see  pp.   84,  311).      Besides  the       Collotype 
great   uniformity   of  the  letters,  the  coupling  strokes  are          Plates 
occasionally  carried  over  the  succeeding  stroke,  the  arches 
of  b,  h,  m,  n,  p,  r  (and  the  heads  of  the  ascenders)  fre- 
quently are  separated  from  the  stems,  and  the  o  and  b 
occasionally  fail  to  join  below.      These  broken  forms  are 
the  results  of  speed,  and  are  not  to  be  imitated  except  as 
to  that  which  is  both  a  cause  and  a  result — their  uniformity 
(p.  254). 

The  RULING  is  in  faint* ink:  there  are  two  verti- 
cal marginal  lines  on  the  left  and  one  on  the  right  of 
every  page. 

The  DECORATION  of  the  MS.  is  very  simple. 
The  Initial  (here  shown)  is  in  green  and  powder-gold, 
on  a  lake  ground,  with  white  pattern  :  there  is  a  very 
fine  brownish  outline,  probably  drawn  first.  The  two 
upper  lines  of  writing  and  ||ofO  are  in  red. 

PLATE  XXL  —  Italian  (early)  Sixteenth  -  century 
"cursive"  or  "Italic"  MS.  Ex  libris  S.  C. 
Cocker  ell.  (See  enlargement,  Jig.  178.) 

"  From  the  Poems  of  Cardinal  Bembo,  a  fine  example 
of  the  cursive  writing  perfected  in  Italy  in  the  first  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  book  measures  8J  by  5^ 
inches,  and  contains  79  leaves." — [S.  C.  C.J 

THE  MARGINS  of  the  page  from  which  the  plate 
is  taken  are  approximately  :  Inner  f  inch,  Head  ^  inch, 
Side  2  inches,  Foot  ij  inch.  Note. — The  lines  of  writing 
begin  as  usual  at  the  left  margin,  but  do  not  extend  to  the 
(true)  margin  on  the  right,  hence  the  latter  (the  side 
margin  on  the  recto,  and  the  inner  margin  on  the  verso) 
would  appear  unnaturally  wide,  but  the  effect  is  carried 
off  by  the  (true)  side  margins  being  already  exceptionally 
wide  (and  by  the  writing  on  the  backs  of  the  leaves 
showing  through  the  semi-transparent  vellum  and  so 
marking  the  true  margins). 

483 


Notes  on  the  This  mode  is  very  suitable  for  a  book  of  poems,  in 
Collotype  which  the  lengths  of  the  lines  of  writing  may  vary  con- 
Plates  siderably,  because  the  •writing-line  being  longer  than  the 
ordinary  line  of  writing  allows  room  for  extraordinarily 
long  lines,  and  any  appearance  of  irregularity  is  carried  off 
by  the  extra  wide  side  margins. 

THE  WRITING  is  very  beautiful,  clear,  and  rapid 
— made  with  a  "  slanted  pen  "  (see  "  Italics,"  p.  311,  and 
fig.  178).  Note  the  slightness  of  the  slope  of  the  letters 
(especially  of  the  Capitals),  and  the  length  of  the  stems 
and  the  wide  spacing. 

Note,  also,  the  flatness  of  the  curves  in  a  c  d  e  g  o  q 
and  the  horizontal  top  stroke  in  a  d  g  q,  oblique  in  e  c 
(giving  angular  tops).  The  branching  away  from  the  stem 
of  the  first  part  of  the  arch  in  b  h  m  n  pr  (seen  also  reversed 
in  a  d  g  q  #),  and  the  pointed,  almost  angular,  quality  of 
the  arch.  This,  which  is  apt  to  become  a  fault  in  a 
more  formal  upright  hand  (see  note  on  Plate  XXII.)  is 
helpful  in  a  more  rapid  running  hand,  and  gives  clearance 
to  the  junctions  of  the  strokes  (r  j,) — see  fig.  182. 

The  heads,  simple  or  built-up,  hooks  tending  to  become 
triangular. 

The  letters  in  this  MS.  are  rarely  coupled. 

The  very  graceful  g  has  a  large  pear-shaped  lower  loop 
touching  the  upper  part. 

PLATE  XXII. — "  Communion  Service  "  written  and 
illuminated  by  E.  Johnston,  1902  A.D.  ("  Office 
Book"  Holy  Trinity  Church,  Hastings).  Reduced 
(nearly  f  scale). 

The  MS.  on  160  leaves  (i  5  inches  by  10  inches)  of  fine 
parchment  ("Roman  Vellum,"  see  p.  173),  contains  the 
Communion  Service  and  many  collects,  epistles,  and 
gospels  for  special  festivals,  &c.  MARGINS  :  Inner 
i\  inch,  Head  ij  inch,  Side  ^\  inches,  Foot  3J 
inches. 

484 


THE  WRITING— after  tenth  century  model  (see   Notes  on  the 
Plate  VIII.) — has  the  fault  (referred  to  at  p.  421)  of      Collotype 
showing  too  much  thin  line  (running  up  obliquely),  the         Plates 
upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  letters  are  not  flat  enough. 
The  tail  of  the  g  is  inadequate,  and  the  lines  of  writing 
are  too  near  together.     The  writing  is  readable,  however, 
and   fairly   regular.       The   CAPITALS    are    Uncials 
(after  Plate  V.)  and  occasional  "  Romans." 

The  RUBRIC  ("  U  Then  shall  be  said  or  sung  ")  is  in 
red,  fitted  in  beside  the  round  initial  and  marking  the  top 
left-hand  corner  of  the  page  (see  footnote,  p.  211). 

The  word  "GLORY"  (and  decoration)— and  also 
the  F  and  T,  showing  in  recto  page — are  in  raised  bur- 
nished gold,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  has  cracked  consider- 
ably in  the  G  (see  p.  164). 

The  STAVES  are  in  red  (p.  140),  the  notes  above 
GLORY  in  raised  gold,  those  in  the  lower  stave,  black. 

The  BOOK  was  of  a  special  nature  (see  pp.  344-5), 
being  intended  for  use  in  a  certain  church  and  on  certain 
special  festivals  :  hence  a  considerable  degree  of  orna- 
ment and  a  generally  decorative  treatment  was  permitted 
(p.  330).  The  Prayer  of  Consecration,  together  with  a 
miniature,  occupied  a  complete  opening,  the  eight  margins 
of  which  were  filled  with  solid,  framing  borders  (p.  213) 
in  red,  blue,  green,  and  gold.  Coats-of-arms  and  other 
special  symbols  and  devices  were  introduced  on  the  Title 
page  and  in  other  places. 

PLATE  XX I  I  I. —The  Story  of  Aucassin  and  Nicolette, 
written  and  illuminated  by  W.  H.  Coiulishaiv, 
1898  A.D. 

THE  VOLUME  consists  of  50  + leaves  of"  Roman 
Vellum  "  (7 J  inches  by  5!  inches). 

MARGINS,  approx.  :.  Inner  }  inch,  Head  if  inch, 
Side  i|^  inch,  Foot  2  inches. 

THE  WRITING,  very  legible,  rather  "Gothic- 
Roman." 

485 


Notes  on  the        THE   CAPITALS  are  illuminated  throughout  the 

Collotype       text  in  gold  on  blue  and  red  grounds.     The  backgrounds 

Plates          are  square,  with  edges  pointed  or  indented,  outlined  blacky 

and  lined  inside  'white.     The  INITIAL  II  is  in  gold  on 

blue  :  the  moon  and  stars  are  in  white  and  gold  and  white. 

THE  LINE-FINISHINGS,  mostly  in  black  pen- 
work,  consist  of  little  groups  (sometimes  of  sprays)  of 
flowers,  &c.  Sprays  from  the  border  separate  the 
"  Song  "  from  the  "  Tale." 

THE  MUSIC.— Staves  black;  Clefs,  gold;  Notes,  red. 

THE  BORDERS  (in  the  opening  from  which  the 
plate  is  taken)  frame  the  text  on  both  pages — nearly 
filling  the  margins  (see  p.  213) :  the  side  and  foot  edges 
of  the  (verso)  page  are  shown  in  the  plate.  The  main 
pattern  is  a  wild  rose,  flowers  and  all,  outlined  with  a 
rather  broad  blue  line :  the  stalks  and  leaves  (lined 
white)  are  apple-green,  the  flowers  are  painted  white  with 
raised  gold  hearts,  the  thorns  are  red.  Through  the  wild 
rose  is  twined  honeysuckle  and  woody  nightshade  :  stalks — 
(h)  red,  (wn]  black;  and  flowers — (h}  red  with  yellow 
spots,  (w«)  purplish  red  with  gold  centres. 

The  whole  effect  is  very  brilliant  and  charming.  The 
freedom  and  naturalness  of  the  "design  "  remind  one  of  a 
country  hedgerow  (p.  213),  and  show  that  vital  beauty 
which  is  the  essence  of  true  illumination. 

PLATE  XXIV. — Inscription  cut  in  Stone  by  A.  E.  R. 
Gill,  1903  A.D.  Reduced  (j\  scale).  NOTE. — To 
view  these  incised  letters  have  light  on  the  left  of  plate 
(or  cover  with  thin  tissue-paper}. 

The  STONE— a  slab  of  "  Hopton  Wood"  (p.  395), 
30  inches  by  18  inches  by  2  inches,  is  intended  to  go 
over  a  lintel.  It  has  a  simple  moulding.  Note  how  the 
INSCRIPTION  occupies  the  space  (pp.  352,  394):  the 
LETTERS  have  approximately  the  same  apparent  'weight 
(p.  328) — the  large  stems  are  more  than  twice  the  height 
of  the  small ;  they  are  only  ^  wider. 

486 


Note  the  strongly  marked  and  elegantly  curved  serifs ;    Notes  on  the 
the  straight-tailed  R  ;  the  I  drawn  out  (marking  the  word       Collotype 
IN)  ;   the  beaked  A,  M,  and  N  ;   the  Capital  form  of  U.  Plates 

The  letters  DEO  would  be  rather  wide  for  ordinary 
use  (p.  270),  but  as  special  letters,  occupying  a  wide 
space,1  are  permissible. 

Even  in  the  collotype,  I  think  this  inscription  shows 
to  what  a  high  level  modern  inscription  cutting  might  be 
raised  by  the  use  of  good  models  and  right  and  simple 
methods. 

1  Letters  in  early  inscriptions  separated  as  these  are  indicated 
each  •'a.  word  (contracted),  as  S.  P.  Q.  R.  (Senatus  PopulusQue 
Romanus}. 


487 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Index         A,  189,  271,  274,  280,  410-11 
A,  Ancient  &  Modern,  195- 

196 

Abbott,  Rev.  Dr.  T.  K.,  413 
Accidental  words,  259,  384 
Acquiring  a  Formal  Hand  : 

(1)  Tools,  48 

(2)  Methods,  61 

(3)  Models,  70 

(4)  Practice,  85 
Addenda  &  Corrigenda,  23 
Addresses,  Illuminated,  353 
Advertisements,  &c.,  340,  352, 

389 

Alabaster  &  Marbles,  395 
Alcuin  of  York,  41 
Aldus,  311,  373 
Alphabet,  derivation  of  the,  36 
Alphabets,   useful    kinds    of, 

267^  377 >  390 
Aluminium  leaf,  165 
Amperzand    (&),     361,     416 

(Amperzand  ;     Examples.  — 

Figs.  50,  79,  148,  172,  173, 

208  &  Plates) 
Analysis  of  Versals,  115 
Analysis  of  Writing,  72 
Ancaster  (stone),  393,  395 
Angles    in   Writing,   43,    46, 

118,  253,  416  ^ 
Anglo-Saxon  writing,  326 
Annotations,    &c.,   144,   315, 

3 '7>  344 
49° 


"Arabic  Numerals,"  82,  426 
Arms  or  branches,  I2O  (v.  Letters") 
Arrangement  of  Lettering,  88, 

122,  239,  255-268,  389 
"  Ascenders  "       and       Ascending 

strokes,  79,97,  119,  300,  314 
As iso  (gesso),  1 66 
Azzuro  delta  magna,  179 

B,    189,   272,    273,   275-279, 

280,  410-11 
Backgrounds,   184,   186,  188- 

193,  211-213 
Bands  of  lettering,   123,   136, 

267 

"  Barbaric  "  illumination,  194 
"  Basket  work,"  208,  209 
Bath  (stone),  395 
Beauty,  237-240,  (12) 
Beauty  of  Arrangement,  255 

,,       ,,  Form,  252 

,,       ,,  Uniformity,  254 
Bibliography,  &c. ,  385 
Binding  books,  346,  103,  106, 

no,  in,  171,  185,  197 
Black  and  Gold,  185,  202 
Black  and  Red,  127,  328 
"  Black  letter,"  118,  141,  263, 

1$I,S64 
Black     outlines,     182,       88, 

212 

Blake,  William,  (footnote)  343 
«  Block  letter,"  384,  390 


Blue,  176-180,  181,  182 

Book-hands,  36 

Book  Marks,  142 

Books,  binding,  346,  103,  106, 

no,  in,  171,  185,  197 
Books,  Manuscript,  98,   341, 

&c. 
Books,  size  and  shape  of,  100- 

101 
Books,    size    of    writing    in, 

101, 107 

Book     typography,     founda- 
tions of,  13,  98 
Borders,  Illuminated,  98,  198— 

203,  211,214,  4*7-43° 
Borders,  penwork,  25 
Bows  &  Curves,  121 
Brasses,  137,  340,  375 
Brazil-Wood,  175 
British     Museum,    MSS.    in, 

386,  409,  &c. 
Broadsides,  338,  350 
Brushes,  172 
Brush-made  (painted)   letters, 

376,  280,  (118),  292,  384 
Bubbles,  in  size,  148 
"  Built-up  "  letters,  291,  118- 

119,  254,  289,  331 
Burnished  gold,  160,  184  (see 

also  Gold} 

Burnisher,  the,  158,  166,  171 
Burnishing  slab,  146,  153 

C,  270,  281,  410-11 
Cake  colours,  175 
Calligraphy,  14,  368 
Cane,  or  Reed  pens,  52 
Capitals  (see  also  Letters) 
Capitals,  arrangement  of,  256, 
258  ;  (in  Lines,  Headings  & 
Pages)    125-126,    128-136, 
299,  422 
Capitals,  coloured,   113,   118, 

122,    123,   134,   185 
Capitals    &    Small   letters,    40, 

H2,  122,  302 
Capitals,  severe  type  of,  294 


Capitals,     simple -written,     113, 

297,  302 
Capitals,    sizes    of,    108,    119, 

122 

Carbonate  of   Copper   (blue), 

179 
Caroline     (or     Carlovingian) 

Writing,  41-43,  45,  305 
Caslon,  William,  373,  (26) 
Cennino  Cennini,  165,  184, 

386 

Chalk,  395,  402 
Chapters,  beginnings  of,  125, 

(footnote  l)  342,  (2)  343 
Character,  237-240,  323 
"  Characteristic      Parts,"      247, 

252,  280 

Characterization  of  letters,  278 
Charlemagne,  41 
Charter  hands,  417 
Chequers,  191,  197,  215-217 
Chinese  printing,  372 
Chinese  Vermilion,  178 
Chinese  White,  180 
Chisel-made   letters,   36,   196, 

278,    280,    292,    375,    391, 

396,  410 

Chisel-shape  of  nib,  57,  63 
Chiswick  Press,  the,  374 
Chronograms,  363 
Church    Services,    &c.,     140, 

345,  387;  484 
Close  spacing,  262—267 
CNUT,  charter  of,  416 
Cobden-Sanderson,  T.  J.,  (13), 

368,  387 
Cockerell,  Douglas,  171,  (on 

limp  vellum  bindings)  346, 

387 

Cockerell,  S.  C.,423,  430-483 
Collotype  plates,  the,  407,  431 
Colophons,  142,  342 
Coloured  "  Inks,"  172,  322 
,,       Letters  (see  Capitals,  & 

Contrasts) 

Colour,  cake  &  powder,  175 
,,        pan  &  tube,  176 
491 


Index 


Index          Colour,  preparations,  175-180 
,,       for  Penwork,  176 
,,       proportions  of,  182 
,,       Repetition  &  Limita- 
tion of,  181 
Colours, Tints  few  &  constant, 

177 

,,       Use  of,  195,  202,  203, 

216,  422,424,  (389) 

Colour- work  Illumination,  17, 

194 
Columns,    double,    104,     134, 

J36»  37° 

Commonplace,  the,  268 
Complex    and    simple   forms, 

'95 

Construction  of  writings,  73, 

83-85,    118,   292,   311    (see 

also  the  Notes  on  the  Collotypes) 

Continental  Writing,  41,  413 

Contrasts,  Decorative,  327, 363 

,,        „    of  Colour,  327,  336 

,,        „    of  Form,  330,  336, 

,,       ,,    of  Red   &    Black, 

144 

"Conventionalism,"  220 
"  Copy  book  "  hands,  304,  305 
Copyingahand,7i,82,  311,323 
Copying  early  work,  83,  114, 

!95>  3*3>  4H-4I7,  422~4M, 
482    ^ 

Correcting  mistakes,  174,  344 
Countercharging,  188,216,424 
Coupling-strokes,  joining  let- 
ters, 73 

Cowlishaw,  W.  H.,  485 
Cursive  Writing,  37,  317,  483 
Cutting  sheets,  99 
Cutting-slab,  61 
Cutting  the  Pen,  52-60 
"  Cyphers"  & Monograms,  361 

D,  270,  281,  410-11 
' '  Deckle  "  edge,  1 1 1 
Decoration  of  Print,  194,  364, 

371,  374 

492 


Decorative  Contrasts,  327,  363 
Decorative  use  of  Red,  144 
"  Descenders,"    and     Descending 

strokes,  79,  97,  300,  314 
"Design,"    Decorative,     177, 

(183),   201,  210,  214-222 

"Design"      in    illumination, 

214 

Designing  in  type,  365,  371 
Desk,  the,  49 

,,     Position  of,  61 

,,      Writing  level  on,  62 

„      Different  slopes  of,  68 

,,       Slopeybr  colour,  118 
Development  of  g,  325 
Development  of  illumination, 

1  6,  127,  204,  409 
Development    of    illuminated 

initial,  48,  114,  205,  423 
Development  of  Versals,  112 
Development  of  Writing,  the, 

35,  409,  &  Author's  Preface 
Devices  in  Letters,  362 
Diaper  patterns,  192,  215-217 
"  Display  types,"  352 
Distinct  lines  of  writing,  326 
Distinctiveness,  221,  247,  256 
Divisions  of  the  text,  123,  138, 

256 

Dividing  Words,  258,  385 
Dots,  groups  of,  188,  213 
Drawing,  165,  203,  220,  227 
Drawing    letters,     118,     1*6, 

146,  292,  293 
"Durham  Book,"  41,  71,  215, 


E,  272,  273,  281,  410-11 
Edges    of    Books,    rough,    or 

smooth  and  gilt,  in 
Egg,  white  of,  163,  165,  166, 

'75,  «79»  l83 

Egg,  yolk  of,  175,  179,  180 
Egypt,  Hieratic  writing  of,  36 
Eleventh    Century    Writing, 

46,  47>  3°5>  4i6 
Elzevirs,  the,  373 


English  Half-Uncials,  40 
English,  Writing,  40,  46,  47, 

3°3>    3°5,    (335)>  4I5-4'7> 

419,  423,  426 
English,  modern,  writing  in, 

300,  326,  484,  485 
Engraving,  Metal,  365,  375 
"  Essential  Forms,"  240,  275 
Even  Spacing,  265,  219 
"Expression,"  240 

F,  272,  274,  282,  410-11 
"  Face,"  of  type,  373,  (26) 
Fifteenth    Century    Writing, 
46,47.  (3*6)>  33J> 


"  Filigree"  Illumination,  197, 

428 

Filling  the  Pen,  51,  69 
"  Fine  Writing"  and   "Mas- 

sed Writing,"  260,  265,  299 
Fine   Pen    Writing,    59,    86, 

311,324,482,  26 
Firth,  C.  M.,  179 
Flemish  MS.,  421 
Floral  Ornaments  &  Decora- 

tion,   182,    187,    191,    192, 

198-203,  219 
Fly-leaves,  in,  346 
"Folder,"  64,  99,348 
Folding  sheets  for  books,  99, 

101-103,  1IX 
Folio,  IOZ 

Foot  margin,  106,  352,  &c. 
Formal  Hand,  acquiring  a  — 

(1)  Tools,  48 

(2)  Methods,  61 

(3)  Models,  70 
(4;  Practice,  85 

Formal  Writing,  36,  317,  323 
Formal  Writing,  Modern,  71, 

86,     114,    310,    315,    323, 

414-417,  481 
Foundation  Stones,  393 
Fourteenth  Century  Writing, 

46,  (114),  423,  (427) 
Framed  parchments,  356 
Framing  borders,  25,  213,  371 


Freedom,   122,  126,  239,  258, 
264,  324,  327,  342,  369,  21 
"  French  chalk,"  167,  174 
French  Writing,  41,  305,  428 
Froben,  (footnote)  365,  373 

G,  270,  282,  410-11 

g,  Development  of,  325 

"  Geometrical "  patterns,  205 

Gesso  Sottile,  1 66 

Gilding  (see  Gold) 

Gill,  A.  E.  R.,  383,  486,  (on 

Inscriptions  in  Stone)  389 
Gilt  edges,  in 
Gold-leaf,  151,  165,  169 
Gold-leaf,  Laying  &  Burnish- 
ing. HS-1?1.  l84 
«  Gold  Ink,"  165 
Gold   letters,   148,    166,    168, 

186,  188,  299,  416,  (405) 
Gold     powder,     "paint,"    or 

matt  gold,  163,  183,  187 
Gold,  spots,  bars,  frames,  183 
Gold,    use    of,     183-193    (see 
also     Other     Colour     Schemes, 
127-145) 

Gold  Writing,  164,  299 
"  Golden  Psalter,"  the,  218 
"  Gothic  lettering,"  46,  118,  282, 

33*.  336,  373 
Greek  Writing,  36,  320 
Green,  176-178,181,  i82,(2O2) 
Gum  arabic,  147,  175 
Gutenberg,  372 

H»  27J>  z.73»  28*,  4" 
Half-Uncials,  37,  40,  71,  238, 

302,  413-415 

Ham-Hill  (stone),  393,  395 
Hand-made  paper,  in,  51 
Handwriting,  ordinary,  14,  15, 

77,  280,  315,  323,  374 
Headings     in     Capitals     and 

Colour,  125,  132,  134,  297, 

(footnote  2)  343,  353 

Heads,  feet,  serifs,  84,  244,  311, 
414,  416,  418,  482 

493 


Index 


Index          Heraldry,  216,  360,  361,  336 
Herbal,  A,  221,  369 
Herringham,     Christiana    J., 

165,  386 

Hewitt,  Graily,  386,  (Appen- 
dix :  On  Gilding)  167 
Historiated  Initial,  423 
Holding  the  Pen,  64-68 

,,         ,,      ,,    Horizontal 

shaft,  6 1,  67 

Hollow  letters,  119,  208 
Holy  Trinity   Church,  Hast- 
ings, Office  Book,  484 
Hooks,  or  beats,  244,  280,  289 
Hoptonwood  (Stone),  395, 486 
Horizontal   thin   strokes,   65, 

66,  72,  73,  (footnote]  304 
Hiibner's    Exempla,    378—380, 
388 

I,  189,  283 
I  for  J.,  use  of,  283 
Illuminated  Addresses,  353 
Illuminated  borders,  199,  211, 

214 
Illuminated   Initials,  214  (see 

Initial,  also  Collotype  Notes) 
Illumination,  14,  486,  98 
Illumination,   a  definition  of, 

193.  *94 

Illumination,  a  theory  of,  193 
Illumination,  heavy,  263 
Illumination,    origin     &    de- 
velopment of,  48,  127,  204, 
409,  16 

Illumination,  tools  for,  172 
Illustrations    in    MS.    books, 

13,  14,  221,  (374) 
Incised  Letters,  377-384,  403- 

4°5>  39* 

Indented  (set  in)  lines,  113,  264 
Initial,    illuminated,  develop- 
ment of,  48,  114,  (134),  205, 

33°.  333>  423 

Initials,  round  or  square,  210 
Initial  Pages,  &c.,  1 12,  128,  365 
Initial  word  (IN),  128 

494 


Inks,  51,  70  (see  also  Coloured 

"  inks  "  and  Gold) 
Inner  margin,   106 
Inscription,  modern,  487 
Inscriptions,   size  &   arrange- 

ment of,  88,  265,  351,  392 
Inscriptions  in  stone,  389 
Inscriptions  on  metal,  stone, 

wood,  &c.,  375,  377,  264 

"Inside  Shapes,"  253,  281  (C) 

Irish  Half-Uncials,  40 

Irish    Writing,    34,    40,    302, 


Italian  Writing,  47,  305,  312, 
317,  412,  417-419,  429- 
484 

Italics,  311,  48,  130,  263 

Italic  Capitals,  315 

"Italic"  Writing,  138,  483 

J,  283,411 

Joachinus  de  Gigantibus,  430 

Jonah  &  fish,  195,  421 

K,  273,  284,  401,  411 
Ketton  (stone),  395 
Kells,  Book  of,  413,  40 
Kelmscott  Press,  the,  364 
Knife  for  pen  cutting,  60 

L,  273,  284,  410-11 
Lamb's  skin,  167,  173-74 
Lapis  Lazuli,  178 
Learning  to  Write,  48 
Legibility,  86,  390  (see  Read- 

ableness) 
Lettering,  arrangement  of,  88, 

122,  239,  255-268,  389 
Lettering,  construction  &  ar- 

rangement of,  237,  17-19 
Lettering,    contrasts    of   size, 

weight,  &c.,  327-328,  353 
Lettering,  divers  uses  of,  337 
Lettering  for  Reproduction, 

365 

Letters  in  Bands,  123,  136, 
267 


Proportions      and     Methods, 

100,  221,  256,  267,  358 
Letters,    Brush-made,     (118), 

292,  376 
Letters,  "  Built-up, "291,  254, 

289,  331, 118-119 
Letters,    Characterization    of, 
*78 

,,     ,,     "  Arms  &  Branches," 
281  (C),  288,  331 

,,     ,,    Stems,    288    (drawn 
out),  282,  324,  331 

„     ,,    Bows  &  Curves,  288 

,,     „     Serifs,  288 

,,     ,,    Tails,  289,  251,  331 
Letters,  drawn,292~93, 146,118 
Letters,  gold  (see  Gold} 
Letters,  "Hollow,"  119,  208, 

Letters,  incised  &  raised,  377- 

384>  4°3 
Letters  in  inscriptions,  size  of, 

35'»393 

Letters,  "  Lombardic,"  119 
Letters,  monogrammatic,  260 
Letters  in  outline,  (294),  378- 

380 
Letters,    round   (see  Round  or 

Square  types) 
Letters, Upper  &  Lower  Parts, 

273 
Letters,  Varied  types  of,  114, 

119,    209,    377;    (on    one 

Page)  352 
Letters,  Wide  &  narrow,  270, 

278 

' *  Library  gilt"  III 
Lighting,  62 
Limitation  in  decoration,  177, 

181,  198,  215,  220,  352 
"  Limner's  "  Illumination,  202 
Line- Finishings,   205,    123,    134, 

193.  263,  425,  486 
Lines  of  Writing,  262.  326,  343 
Lines,  red,  144 
Line-spaces  in  text,  123,  138, 

256 


Linked  letters,  260,  361 

"  Lombardic  "  Capitals,    119, 

210 
Loumyer,  G.,  147 

M,  271,  284,  410-11 
Magnifying  glass,  use  of,  57, 

61,84 

Majuscules,  (footnote}  300 
Marbles  &  Alabasters,  395 
Marginal  lines,  109,  in,  136, 

343 

Margin,  the  Foot,  352,  (106) 
Margins,  proportions  of,  256, 

89»94,95,97,  103,265,394 
Margins,  wide,   89,  103,  213, 

222,265,299,317,  351,483 
"  Massed  writing,"  79,  260 
Matt  gold,  183,  187 
Methods     and      Proportions, 

100,  221,   256,  267 

Middle  Ages,  the,  196 
Miniatures,  98,  127,  165,  203, 

220 

Minuscule,  37,  302 
Models  of  lettering,  70,  114, 

Modern    Handwriting,    315- 
323  (see  also  Formal  Writing 
15*  Hand-writing,  Ordinary) 
Monograms  &  Devices,  361, 

260 

Morris,  William,  368,  386-7 
MS.  Books,  98,  256,  341 
Music  with  red  staves,  140, 345 

N,  271,  285,  410-11 
Narrow  letters,  269-273,  278 
"  Natural"  illumination,  202 
Nib  (see  Pen) 

Notes  in  red,  &c. ,  130,  144 
Numbering  pages,   no,    142, 

144,  34* 
Numerals,  "Arabic,"  82 

O,  270,  285,411 

"  Oblong"  shaped  book,  103 

495 


Index 


Index  Obsolete  letters,  &c.,  86,  323 

Octavo,  I O2 

Openings,  IOI,  Io6,  213,  365 
"  Originality,"  268,  20 
Ornament  of  backgrounds,  191 
,,         use    of,    123,    222, 

254.  33° 

Ornament,  "woven,"  208 
Ornaments  (see  also  Design  & 

Decoration) 

Ornamental  Letters,  330,  48, 
114,  208,  276,  298,  364,  25 
Outlines,  186,  &c. 

,,          in  black,  182 
Oxgall,  175 

P,  273-274,  285,  411 
Page,  proportions  of  a,  317 
Pages  in  Capitals,  125,    128, 

132,  299,  363-365 
Pages,  thickness  of,  99 
Painted  (brush-made)  letters, 

376,  280,  (118),  292,  384 
PaLeographical  Society's  Pub- 
lications, The,  388,412,413 
Pan  colours,  176 
Paper,  hand-made,  51,  in 
Paper  Sheets,  sizes  of,  103 
Paragraphs      &      Paragraph 
marks,  112, 113, 123, 141, 144 
Parchment  &  "  Vellum,"  173, 

38,  107,  no,  167 
Parchment,  framing  of,  356 
Patterns,  elementary,  215,  205 
Patterns,  indented  in  gold,  191 
Pens,  for  colour,  172,  180 

,,        metal,  60  (footnote,  20) 

„      Quill,  52,  54,  59,  172,  20 

23 
,,      Reed  or  Cane,    51,   52, 

63,  84 

Pen,  cutting  the,  52-60 
Pen,  holding  the,  64-68 
Pen,  Nibs  shape  of,  56,  118 
,,         width  of,   84,   1 1 8, 

292,  324 

Pen,  Pressure  on,  63,  23 
496 


Pen-knife,  60 

Pen-wiper,  61 

Pen-work  illumination,  197 

Penmanship  (or  use  of  the  pen), 
35-38,84-85,118,197,  198, 
204,  218,  238,  239,  241-247, 
254,262,  278,  291,  311,317, 
375,  414,  418,  &  Author's 
Preface 

Personality,  239,  323 

Phrasing,  384 

"  Plain  song,"  140 

Planning  MS.,  Spacing,  &c., 
97,  100,  358  (see  also  Scribes1 
Methods} 

Planning  sections&  pages,  342 

Plaster  of  Paris,  166 

Platinum  leaf,  165 

Poetry,  long  lines  in,  95,  97, 

138.484 

Poetry,  general  treatment  of, 
95,  123,  138,  263,  337,  338, 

371 

"  Pointed  "  Writing,  40,  41 
Pounce,  145,  146,  167,  174 
Portland  Stone,  395 
Powder  Colours,  175 
Powder  gold  or  "  gold  paint," 

146, 163, 170,  (see  Matt  Gold, 

183,  187) 
Practice  (in  Lettering],  21-22, 

385 
Practice,  acquiring  a  formal 

hand,  85,  327 
Practice  &  theory,  267 
Prayer  Book,  345 
Prefaces  in  colour,  &c.,  130, 

3J5 
"  Primary  Colour  Sensations," 

182 
Printed  books,  Decoration  of, 

i94>  369-372,  374 
Printers'  marks,  142 
Printers'  methods,  101,  113, 

258,  264,  267,  363-374 
Printing,  367 
Proportion,  221,  251 


Proportions     and     Methods, 

100,  221,  256,  267,  358 
Pumice,  powdered,  146 
Punctuation  marks,  82,  384 
Purple,  175,  177,  180 
Purple  Vellum,  299 

e,  270,  286,4x1 
ualities  of  good  Writing,  239 

Quarto,  102 

Quill  pens,  52,  54,  59,  172,  20 
23 

R,  272,  274,  286,401,  411 
Raised  Letters  in  stone,  &c., 

377,  384,  403 
Raising        preparation        (or 

"Size"),  145,  146,  166,  168 
Readableness,    237-240,    254, 

259,  260,  264,  265 
Recto  (right-hand  page),   105, 

112,  181,  365 

Red  (paint),  176-78,  181,  182 
Red  &  Black,  127,  328,   364, 

372 

Red  lines,  144 
Red  writing,    130,  144,    194, 

S'5,  328»  345 
Reed  or  Cane   pens,   51,  52, 

63,84 
Renaissance,  the,  and  writing, 

47,419 
Repetition  in  decoration,  181, 

215,  185,  &  see  Limitation 
11  Rivers,"  (footnote)  262 
Roman    Alphabet,     the,     36, 

114,  268,  390 
Roman    Capitals,     189,    210, 

238,    294,    297,    299,     302, 

377,  39°-39'»  409-41* 
Roman  Capitals,  Written,  297, 

302 
"Roman"     characters,     118, 

241,  263,  278 

Roman  Small  Letters,  310,  47 
Roman  Uncials,  38 
''  Roman  Vellum  "  173 


Roman  Writing,  36-40,  297, 
412 

Rooke,  Noel,  227,  5 

"  Round  "  and  "  Square  "  let- 
ters, 269 

Round  or  Square  types  of 
D,  E,  H,  M,  U,  &c.,  40, 
119,  132,210,282,  300 

Round,  Upright,  Formal 
Hands,  65,  302 

Roundness  in  Writing,  38,  44, 

45.47>  3°4,  4H 
Rubricating,     127,     98,    130, 

144,  1 80,  194,  344,  345,  372 
"Rules,"  144,  364 
Ruling,  double,  88,  304,  414 
Ruling    pages,    &c.,    89,    99, 

108,  258,  299,  343 
Ruling  stylus,   89,   100,   108, 

"°,  343 

Rustic  Capitali,  38,  297 
Rustic  Capital  in  Stone,  378 
Rye,  Slate  at,  363,  382 

S,  273,  274,  286,411 
"  St.  Albans  Psalter,"  the,  419 
Sandarach  (resin),  174 
Scale  for  ruling,  99,  25 
Scalpel  for  pen-knife,  60 
Scribes',  methods,  65,  88,  101, 

103,  113,  128,  130,221,  258, 

268 

Scriptorium,  4,  368 
Scroll  work,  203 
"  Section,"  "  Gathering"  (or 

"  Quire"),  102,  HO,  346 
Sections   of  Letters  in  stone, 

405,  403 

Semi-formal  Writing,  317 
Semi-Uncials,  see  Half-Uncials 
Serifs,  73,    84,   120,    241,   244- 

247,288,  311,  314,  392 
Service  Books,  140,   345,  387, 

484 

Set  Inscriptions,  350 
Setting  out  &spacing,  126,128, 
221,  258,351,  384-S»396 

*  497 


Index 


Index  Sgraffito,  lettering  in,  339 

Sharpening  stones,  61.  399 
Sheets,    cutting,     folding    & 

ruling,  99 
Sign  Writing  &  Brush-Work, 

376 

Silver  leaf,  165,  299 
Simple    and    complex    forms, 

!95,  323 
Simple   Written    Capitals,    123, 

297,  302 

Simple-Written  Letters,  291 
Simplicity,  240,  255 
"  Size  "  or    Raising    prepara- 
tion, 145,  146,  166,  168 
Size  &  arrangement  of  inscrip- 
tions, 88,  265,  351,  392 
Size  &  Shape  of  book,  100-101 
Sizes  of  Capitals,  119,  122,256 
Sizes  of  paper  sheets,  103 
Skeleton  forms,  240,  247,  275 
"Sketching,"  126,  218, 258, 292 
"Slanted-Pen  "  or  Tilted  Writing, 
43,73,241,247,304,310,415 
Slate,  382,  395 

Sleight  of  hand,  23,85,31 1,  322 
Small-letters  and  Capitals,  40, 

112,  122,  302 
Small   or   Fine-pen   Writing, 

59,  86,  311,  324,  482,  26 
Spacing  close,  262—67 
Spacing  evenly,  265,  219 
Spacing  letters,  words  &  lines, 
77,  128,  256,  394:    seealso — 
Spacing  &  planning  MS.,  89, 

97 
Spacing   &   setting   out,    126, 

128,  221-22,  258,  351,  385, 

396 

Spacing  wide,  262-67,  3T4,  327 
Special  Books,  300,  304,  344- 

346,412,485,  299 
Special  words  and  letters,  123, 

352 
Speed    in    writing,    84,    305, 

3IX»  3*5,  322,  324>  483 
Spots,  in  "design,"  187-88 

498 


"Spring"  for  pens,  54,  59 
"Square  Capitals"  37,  412 
"Square  and  Round"  letters, 

269 
Square  or  round  types  of  D, 

E,  H,  M,  U,  &c.,4o,   119, 

132,   210,  282,    300 

Stanzas  or  Verses,  123,  138 
(see  also  Poetry) 

Stones,  best  kinds  of,  for  in- 
scriptions, 395 

Stones,  Foundation,  393 

Stonyhurst  College,  Gospel  of 
S.  John,  in  Uncials,  413 

Straightforwardness,  97,  101, 

221-22,  258,  264,   267,    327, 

342?  344,  35 1»  396 

"  Straight  pen,"  44,  241,  3°4 
Stylographic  writing,  317 
"  Swash  Letters"  315 
Symbolical  devices,  142 
"  Symmetrical  "  arrangement, 
264,  389 

T,  272,  286,  411 
Tail-pieces,  142,  342 
"Tai/iness,"  300 
Tenison  Psalter,  the,  426 
Tenth  Century  Writing,  46, 

130,   295,    305,    325,  (326), 

415,482,485 
Theory  &  practice,  267 
Thicks   &  Thins,  43,  63,  83-85, 

118,  292,  317,  375,377,39^ 
Thin  strokes,  horizontal,  65, 

66,  72,  304 

Thirteenth  Century  Illumina- 
tion, 185,  114,  195,  203? 

210,  423-427 
Thirteenth  Century  Writing, 

46,    114,    (116),    331,    423, 

425,  426 
Thompson,    H.    Yates-,    227, 

429 

Thompson,  Sir  E.  M.,  385 
(quotations  from),  36,  37, 
41,  127,  418,  426 


"Tilted"    letters    (O,    &c.), 

285,  44,  290 
Title    pages,    128,    142,    258, 

363 

Tombstones,  237,  394 
Tool-forms,     278,    292,     323, 

392 

Tools  and  Materials  for  ac- 
quiring a  formal  hand,  48 

Tools  &  Materials  for  illu- 
mination, 172,  20 

Tools  &  Materials  for  laying 
&  burnishing  gold,  145 

Tools  for  inscriptions  in 
stone — 

Chisels,  396-403 
Mallets,  &c.,  399-402 

Top     margin     (or     Head),    106, 

iii,  343 

Trajan  Column,  Inscription 
on,  409—411 

Turkey's  Quill,  a,  54 

Twelfth  Century  Illumina- 
tion, 195,  205,  218,  420- 
422 

Twelfth  Century  Writing,  46, 
47,  (116),  305,331,417-422 

"Tying  up,"  260 

Typography,  book,  founda- 
tions of,  13,  98 

U,  271,  287,  411 
Ultramarine  Ash,  178 
Uncials  (Examples,  &c.),  300 
,,       Roman,  38 
„       Script  II.,  79 
Uniformity,    244,     254,     311, 

324,  181 

Upright  Round-hand,  44,  65, 
70,  302-304,  412,  413- 

415 
"  Upright"  shaped  book,  103 

V,  271,287,  411 
V  for  U,  use  of,  283 
Variety,  177,  255,  352 
Variety  in  initials,  209 


Varied  types  of  .letters,  114, 
119,  209,  377;  (on  one 
page)  352 

"  Vellum  "  &  Parchment,  173, 
38,  107,  IIO,  167:  framing 

Vellum  for  bindings,  348 

Verdigris,  178 

Vermilion,  177 

Versal    Letters,     34,     112-126, 

205,  208,  218,  294,  296,  331, 

420,  423  (see  also  Chapter 

VIII.)     ' 
Versal    Letters,    Examples    of, 

114  (and  Plates) 
Verses,  see  Versals,  Paragraphs, 

Stanzas,  &c. 
Vicenza,  Mark  of,  481 

W,  287,  411 

Walker,  Emery,  372,  387 
Wall  Inscriptions,  350,  406 
Waterproof  Ink,  51,  172 
"Weight"  of  lettering,  327- 

3*8,  353,  377 
Whall,  C.  W.,  17 
White,  Chinese,  180 
White,  use  of,  180,  182,   183, 

212 

"Whiting,"  147,  174 
Whitelead  (biacca),  166 
White-of-egg,   163,   165,  166, 

175,  179,  183 
"White   vine  pattern,"    202, 

430,  481 
Wide  Margins,  89,    103,  213, 

222,265,  299>3I7»  35^483 
Wide   spacing,    262-67,    314, 

327 
Wood    Engraving,   364,    365, 

371,  (221) 
Words  in  Capitals,   126,  136, 

297    (see    also    Headings    & 

Spacing) 
Words  to  the  line,  number  of, 

85,  107 
Working  in  situ,  405 

499 


Index 


Index          Writing,  ist  to  5th  century, 

36-39,  412 
„          6th  to  gth  century, 

4°~45>  3°3»  3°Si 
(326),  412-415 

,,  loth  century,  46, 
'3°,  (*95)»  3°S, 
325,  (3l6)»  4155 
482,  485 

,,  nth  century,  46,  47, 
3°5,  416 

,,  1  2th  century,  46,  47, 
(116),  305,  331, 
417-422 

,,  i3th  century,  46, 
114,  (116),  331, 
423,  425,  426 

,,    I4th  century,  46, 

("4),  4»3>  (4*7) 
„          1  5th      century,     46, 


483 
,,         i6th   century,    310— 

323,  (326),  483 
Writing,  Analysis  of,  72,  (115) 


Writing,  Anglo-Saxon,  326 
Writing,  Fine  &  Massed,  260, 

299 
Writing,  ordinary  Hand,   14, 

15,  77,  280,  315,  323,  374 
Writing,    size    of,   &c.,    xox, 

107 
Writing,  the  Development  of, 

35,  409,  &  Author's  Preface 
Writings,  construction  of,  73, 

83-85,    1 1 8,    292,   311    (see 

also  Collotype  Notts) 
Writing-Level,  the,  62 
Writing-line,  length  of,  105, 

107,  109,  262,  343 
"  Writing-Pad"    50,    (fur     or 

cloth  for)  51 

X,  273,  287,  411 

Y,  273,  275,  287,  411 
Yolk  of  egg,  175,  179,  180 

I    Z,  272,  288,  411 

I    Zincotype  process,  the,  367 


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PUBLISHED     BY     JOHN     HOGG 

13   PATERNOSTER  Row,  LONDON,  E.G. 
506 


ARTISTIC   CRAFTS    SERIES 


SILVERWORK  AND  JEWELLERY.  A 
TEXT-BOOK  FOR  STUDENTS  AND 
WORKERS  IN  METAL.  BY  H. 
WILSON.  With  182  Diagrams  by  the 
Author,  and  16  Pages  of  Collotype  Repro- 
ductions. 348  Pages.  Price  55.  net 

PRESS    NOTICES 

"  A  lucid  text-book  for  students  and  workers,  well  illustrated, 
being  the  second  volume  in  the  series  which  made  a  successful 
opening  with  Mr.  D.  Cockerell's  '  Bookbinding.'" — The  Times. 

"  It  teaches  not  only  processes  and  workshop  practice,  but 
also  good  taste  in  the  making  of  objects  in  which  in  these  days 
vulgarity  is  none  too  seldom  seen.  Admirably  illustrated,  well 
written,  and  practically  serviceable,  the  book  should  prove 
welcome  alike  to  craftsmen  and  to  amateurs." — The  Scotsman. 

"...  The  book  will  have  a  fascination  for  all  craftsmen, 
and  may  be  read  with  advantage  by  every  one  who  wishes  to 
understand  the  underlying  principles  of  the  art  crafts." — The 
Morning  Post. 

"  Not  only  to  apprentices  and  learners,  but  also  to  experienced 
craftsmen,  the  book  can  be  most  cordially  commended.  Its  value 
is  enhanced  by  a  full  glossary  and  an  index." — Gtasgoiv  Herald. 

"  This  volume,  which  belongs  to  the  admirable  Artistic  Crafts 
Series  of  Technical  Handbooks,  gives  practical  instruction  in 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  man's  handicrafts." — The  Newcastle 
Chronicle. 

"  We  cannot  imagine  a  better  aid  and  supplement  to  practical 
experience  in  the  workshop  than  this  handbook.  All  necessary 
processes,  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex,  are  explained 
in  a  methodical  and  logical  order,  with  the  aid  of  illustrations, 
in  which  each  touch  is  eloquent  and  fresh  from  the  master's 
hand." — The  Athenaeum. 

PUBLISHED     BY     JOHN     HOGG 

13  PATERNOSTER  Row,  LONDON,  E.G. 

507 


ARTISTIC   CRAFTS   SERIES 


WOOD  CARVING:  DESIGN  AND 
WORKMANSHIP.  BY  GEORGE  JACK. 

With  78  Drawings  by  the  Author,  and  16 
Pages  of  Collotype  Reproductions.  320 
Pages.  Price  $s.  net 

PRESS    NOTICES 

"  The  study  of  some  form  of  handicraft  has  become  an  important  matter 
in  the  training  of  an  art  student,  and  those  who  practise  wood-carving  will 
find  in  this  admirably  written  and  illustrated  book  a  comprehensive  treatise 
on  the  subject." — Morning  Post. 

"  In  this  notable  addition  to  the  Handbooks  on  the  Artistic  Crafts,  Mr. 
Jack  deals  thoroughly  not  only  with  the  craftsmanship  of  wood-carving,  but 
also  with  the  theory  of  design,  and  the  sul>ject-matter  which  the  artist 
should  select  to  carve." — Newcastle  Daily  Journal. 

"The  illustrations  complete  in  a  very  appreciable  way  the  value  of  one  of 
the  soundest  text-books  within  the  reach  of  the  student  of  wood-carving."— 
Glasgow  Herald. 

"  Quite  up  to  the  level  of  its  predecessors." — Studio. 

"  His  illustrations  from  both  ancient  examples  and  from  his  own  work 
are  excellently  chosen  and  reproduced,  and  show  that  he  has  made  himself 
the  master  and  the  pupil  of  the  best  traditions  of  his  craft." — Pall  Mall 
Gazette. 

"  Clear  instruction,  profusely  illustrated,  and  admirably  presented  by  the 
publisher."— Sheffield  Daily  Telegraph. 

"  Mr.  Jack's  love  of  his  art  is  evidenced  by  every  one  of  his  chapters. 
...  To  read  his  book  is  a  pleasure,  and  we  can  very  heartily  commend  it. 
It  is  fully  illustrated,  and  contains  a  number  of  fine  collotype  plates  and  a 
good  index.  It  is  exceedingly  cheap  at  the  published  price  of  55." — 
Furniture  Record. 

"In  its  affirmative  aspect  the  book  is  entirely  admirable,  .  .  .  and  its 
value  is  immensely  enhanced  by  the  numerous  and  excellent  illustrations. 
Its  literary  quality  is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  the  average  text-book." — 
Builder. 


PUBLISHED     BY     JOHN     HOGG 
13  PATERNOSTER   Row,  LONDON,  E.G. 


508 


THE  ARTISTIC  CRAFTS  SERIES 

OFTECHNICAL  HANDBOOKS 

EDITED  BY  W.  R.  LETHABY 


STAINED  GLASS  WORK.    A  Text-Book 

for  Students  and  Workers  in  Glass.  By  C.  W. 
WHALL.  With  73  Diagrams  by  two  of  his  Ap- 
prentices, and  1 6  pages  of  Collotype  Reproductions. 
Now  ready.  392  pages.  Price  55.  net. 

"  No  art  student  or  art  teacher  could  fail  to  derive  benefit  from  a  study  of 
the  book ;  and  no  connoisseur,  whatever  his  special  bent,  could  read  it 
without  profit  as  well  as  pleasure." — The  Aberdeen  Daily  Journal. 

"The  highest  praise  possible  for  this  handbook  would  be  to  say  that  it  is 
worthy  of  the  remarkable  series  to  which  it  belongs,  and  this,  without 
reserve,  we  can  affirm  to  be  the  case." — Arts  and  Crafts. 

"The  book  is  thoroughly  practical,  describing  in  detail  the  whole  pro- 
cess of  stained-glass  manufacture,  with  illustrations  and  a  large  number  of 
diagrams." — The  Newcastle  Daily  Journal. 

"Apart  from  the  craftsman,  also,  this  book  should  prove  of  great  service 
to  those  interested  in  painted  glass,  whether  as  custodians  of  buildings  con- 
taining fine  old  windows  or  as  architects  or  clients  intent  on  securing  good 
modern  work." — The  Glasgow  Herald. 

"  Students  will  appreciate  the  excellent  material  found  in  this  book  and 
the  beautiful  plates  that  accompany  it. " —  The  Educational  Review. 

EMBROIDERY    AND    TAPESTRY 

WEAVING  :  A  Practical  Text-Book  of  Design 
and  Workmanship.  By  Mrs.  A.  H.  CHRISTIE. 
With  187  Illustrations  and  Diagrams  by  the  Author, 
and  1 6  pp.  of  Collotype  Plates.  416  pp.  Price 
6s.  net. 

WRITING   fc?  ILLUMINATING,  AND 

LETTERING.  By  E.  JOHNSTON.  With  227 
Illustrations  and  Diagrams  by  the  Author  and  Noel 
Rooke.  8  pp.  of  Examples  in  Red  and  Black,  and 
24  pp.  of  Collotypes.  512  pp.  Price  6s,  6d.  net. 

To  be  followed  by  others  in  due  course. 

PUBLISHED     BY     JOHN     HOGG 
13   PATERNOSTER   Row,  LONDON,  E.G. 

509 


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